Nigeria Education

Education
Old Koranic schools are widespread throughout the north, and missionaries brought Western education to the coastal areas as early as the 1830s. Until the 1970s, enrollment in Western-oriented schools was significantly higher in the south. In 1976 free primary education was established throughout Nigeria. Educational facilities are lacking, however, and the adult illiteracy rate remains above 50 percent. By the mid-1980s, some 13.6 million pupils were enrolled each year in primary schools, and more than 3.1 million students attended secondary schools. Under a new educational system introduced in 1982, primary schooling (officially compulsory) takes six years to complete. Secondary schooling is organized in two successive phases of three years each. Western higher education, begun in 1948 with the founding of the University of Ibadan, is found throughout the country. Other major institutions include Ahmadu Bello University (1962), in Zaria; the Obafemi Awolowo University (1961), in Ife; the University of Lagos (1962); and the University of Nigeria (1960), in Nsukka. British-style universities have been augmented by a growing system of American-influenced teachers colleges and technical colleges.

Nigeria, Federal Republic of, republic, western Africa, bounded by Niger on the north, by Chad and Cameroon on the east, by the Gulf of Guinea on the south, and by Benin on the west. The most populous country of Africa, Nigeria has an area of 923,768 sq km (356,669 sq mi). Its name is derived from that of its major river, the Niger. Abuja is the capital and Lagos is the largest city.
Initially composed of a number of ethnically based kingdoms and states, the area of modern Nigeria was brought under British rule by 1906. It became an independent state on October 1, 1960. Following a period of tension among its ethnic groups, especially the Yoruba of the southwest, the Ibo of the southeast, and the Hausa and Fulani of the north, Nigeria was ruled by the military from 1966 to 1979. During 1967-70 peoples of the southeast attempted—without ultimate success—to secede from Nigeria by forming the Republic of Biafra (see BIAFRA, REPUBLIC OF). The period of civilian rule (1979-83) ended with a military coup.

Land and Resources
Much of Nigeria consists of a low plateau cut by rivers, especially the Niger and Benue. Most of the country is suitable for agriculture. Its major economic resources are its massive petroleum and natural-gas deposits.

Physiographic Regions
Nigeria can be divided into four distinct geographical regions. Along the coast is a belt of mangrove forests and swamps, stretching some 16 km (some 10 mi) inland in most places. This region is cut by numerous lagoons and creeks. In the Niger delta region, the coastal belt extends some 100 km (some 60 mi) inland. Beyond the coast is a broad, hilly, forested belt, which gradually rises to the rocky terrain of the Jos and Bauchi plateaus. Beyond these plateaus is a region of savanna, which stretches to a semidesert zone in the extreme north. A great plain, marked by occasional outcroppings of granite, the savanna region is Nigeria's main agricultural area. In the east is the Adamawa Massif, which borders Cameroon and in which is Nigeria's highest point, Dimlang (Vogel Peak), 2042 m (6699 ft) high.

Rivers and Lakes
The Niger River and its tributaries—principally the Benue, Kaduna, and Sokoto rivers—drain most of Nigeria. In the northeast, the rivers drain into Lake Chad. Navigation is restricted by rapids and seasonal fluctuations in depth.

Climate
Nigeria has two distinct climatic zones. Along the coast the equatorial maritime air mass influences the climate, which is characterized by high humidity and heavy rainfall. To the north the tropical continental air mass brings dry, dusty winds (harmattan) from the Sahara; the temperature varies considerably with the season, as does rainfall, which is far less than in the south.

Plants and Animals
Vegetation zones in Nigeria parallel the climatic zones. In the south, the well-watered zone is partly covered by dense tropical forests that contain hardwoods such as mahogany and obeche. Oil palms are particularly plentiful. In the plateau and savanna regions, forests give way to grasslands and such hardy trees as the baobab and the tamarind. In the extreme northeast, semidesert vegetation prevails. Crocodiles and snakes are found in the swamps and rain forest zones. Most large animals have disappeared from heavily populated areas. Some antelope, camels, and hyenas live in the north.

Mineral Resources
Iron-ore deposits are widespread in the savanna region of Nigeria, as are salt deposits. Tin and columbite are found in the plateau area. Great deposits of petroleum and natural gas are located in the Niger delta and offshore in the bights of Benin and Bonny (Biafra).

Population
With more than 250 ethnic groups, Nigeria is a complex linguistic, social, and cultural mosaic. More than half the population consists of the Hausa and Fulani peoples of the north, the Yoruba of the southwest, and the Ibo of the southeast. Other ethnic groups include the Edo, Ijaw, and Ibibio of the south, the Nupe and Tiv of the central part of the country, and the Kanuri of the northeast.

Population Characteristics
Although Nigeria is recognized as the most populous country in Africa, the exact size and distribution of Nigeria's population have been a matter of great political controversy within the country. The 1963 census recorded 55,670,055 persons; the results of a 1973 census were rejected by the government. Estimates of the country's population by the United Nations (UN), the World Bank, and the Nigerian government in the late 1980s ranged well above 100 million, but preliminary results of the 1991 census showed a total of only 88.5 million. In 1993, Nigeria's population was estimated at 95,060,430. The average density in 1993 was 102 persons per sq km (266 per sq mi). About 35 percent of the people live in urban areas.

Principal Cities
Lagos, Nigeria's largest city, had a population (1990 estimate) of 1,307,000. Other cities with more than 225,000 inhabitants include Aba, Abeokuta, Ado-Ekiti, Ede, Enugu, Ibadan, Ife, Ila, Ilesha, Ilorin, Iwo, Kaduna, Kano, Maiduguri, Mushin, Ogbomosho, Onitsha, Oshogbo, Port Harcourt, and Zaria. Many communities have more than 100,000 inhabitants. In December 1991 the capital moved from the coastal city of Lagos to Abuja in the centrally located Federal Capital territory.

Language
English is the official language of Nigeria. Hausa, a lingua franca in western Africa, is the most widely used language, followed by Yoruba, Ibo, Kanuri, and Tiv.

Religion
At least 45 percent of Nigeria's people are Muslim, the bulk of whom live in the Hausa, Fulani, and Kanuri areas in the north. Some 38 percent of the Nigerians are Christians, with Roman Catholicism centered in the southeast and Methodism and Anglicanism being most influential in the southwest. Traditional religions are practiced by the remainder of the population.

Education and Cultural Activity
Within the boundaries of modern Nigeria are some of the earliest educational and artistic traditions in western Africa. Superimposed on these are the influences of British colonial rule and European missionary educational systems. During the 1970s an increasingly self-confident federal government sought to rapidly modernize Nigeria, using Western education as a major tool. Revenue from the sale of crude petroleum helped to finance such modernization.

Cultural Life
Nigeria has a long and rich tradition of arts and literature. Terra-cotta sculptures were made by Nok artists of northern Nigeria as early as 500 BC, and Ife terra-cottas and Benin bronze work, first made about AD 1200, are world famous. Today, traditional folk art is augmented by Western-influenced graphics, painting, and sculpture. Traditional oral literature has had a significant impact on such world-famous 20th century Nigerian writers as Amos Tutuola, Wole Soyinka, and Chinua Achebe. Parallel to the rich modern literature, most often written in English, is a written vernacular literature, augmented by professional theater companies and dance groups. See AFRICAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE; AFRICAN LITERATURE.

Cultural Institutions
The National Museum in Lagos has a rich collection of art from all periods. Museums in Benin City, Ibadan, Ife, Ilorin, Jos, and Kaduna also are outstanding. The Nigerian government has made a concerted effort to prevent the removal of significant Nigerian art from the country and has sought the return of art taken out during the colonial era. Major collections of books and documents are housed in the National Library of Nigeria (in Lagos) and the National Archives (in Ibadan) as well as in university libraries.

Communications
The first Nigerian newspaper was established in the 1830s in Lagos. Since then a large number of daily and weekly newspapers, published in African languages and in English, have been established. More than 20 English-language daily newspapers were issued in the late 1980s. Even though the federal government has an interest in several newspapers, including Nigeria's largest, the Daily Times of Lagos, government censorship has been sporadic rather than sustained. The national government has been active in broadcasting since 1957, when a chain of radio stations was established. In 1976 the federal government established control over all television stations, placing them under the Nigerian Television Authority. Radio and television programs are broadcasted in English as well as in major Nigerian languages. Some 9.6 million radios and 5.6 million television receivers were in use in the late 1980s.

Government
The central reality of Nigeria's political life since independence in 1960 has been the rivalry and suspicion between the traditional, Muslim, Hausa and Fulani domination in the north and the modern, Westernized south led by Yoruba and Ibo politicians. Following military rule during 1966-79, civilian government was restored on October 1, 1979, under a constitution promulgated in 1978. This constitution was suspended following a military coup on December 31, 1983. Promulgation of a new constitution in 1989 was expected to pave the way for a return to civilian rule in the early 1990s but following a military coup in 1993, this constitution was rescinded.

Executive
Under the 1978 constitution, the president, who is elected to a 4-year term by direct popular vote, is both head of state and head of government. The constitution stipulates that the president must receive an overall plurality of the national vote while attaining a minimum of one-quarter of the vote in at least two-thirds of the 21 states that make up Nigeria. Since 1985, executive powers have been vested in the president, acting in consultation with the 19-member Armed Forces Ruling Council.

Legislature
Elections were held in 1992 for the National Assembly, consisting of a 593-member house of representatives and a 91-seat senate.

Judiciary
The highest tribunal of Nigeria is the supreme court. It is made up of a chief justice and up to 15 other judges, all appointed by the country's president. Other important courts include the federal court of appeal, the federal high court, and a high court in each state. In addition, some states have Islamic courts and courts based on traditional law.

Local Government
At independence, Nigeria was divided into three regions—the north, ruled by the Hausa and Fulani traditional aristocracy; the west, dominated by the Yoruba; and the east, controlled by the Ibo. In 1966 the country was divided into a number of small states. Under the 1978 constitution, state governors were to be elected. From 1983 through 1990, however, the ruling military council appointed all state governors. Nine new states were created in 1991, raising the total to 30; elections for governors and legislatures in all states were held in December.

Political Parties
Before independence, Nigeria's political life was dominated by the Northern People's Congress (NPC); the National Convention of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC), an Ibo-led party that was prominent in the southeast; and the Action Group (AG), which was controlled by Yoruba politicians and directed the government of the southwest. At independence, the NPC and AG formed a coalition and ruled Nigeria until 1966. Severe ethnic rivalries led to military coups in 1966 and the abolition of political parties. In the elections of 1979 the relatively new, northern-based National Party of Nigeria gained the greatest support. Other major parties included the Unity Party of Nigeria, the Nigerian People's party, and the Greater Nigeria People's party.
All political parties were banned after the 1983 coup. The military government announced a resumption of political activity in 1989 but disallowed all 13 parties that applied for registration. Instead, it established two new groups, the Social Democratic party and the National Republican Convention. The Social Democrats won majorities in the Senate and the House in the 1992 elections. Political parties were banned once again, following the military coup of 1993.

Defense
At independence the national military of Nigeria was composed of a small British-trained and -equipped army, navy, and air force. The regional police forces rivaled the military in numbers. In the late 1960s, during the attempted secession of the region of southeastern Nigeria known as Biafra, all police functions were centralized in the federal government, and the military was expanded and modernized. In the early 1990s, the military had about 78,800 members, making it one of the largest armed forces in Africa.

International Organizations
Nigeria is a member of the UN, the Organization of African Unity, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, the Economic Community of West African States, and several other major international associations.

Economy
Nigeria traditionally has been an agricultural country, providing the bulk of its own food needs and exporting a variety of agricultural goods, notably palm oil, cacao, rubber, and peanuts. By the 1970s, however, petroleum supplanted cash crops as the major source of foreign exchange.

National Output
Influenced by rising petroleum revenues, Nigeria's gross domestic product (GDP) rose by an annual average of 6.9 percent during 1965-80. During 1980-88, however, the GDP shrank by 1.1 percent annually, as petroleum prices and revenues dropped. In 1992 the GDP was 26.33 billion.
The drastic decline in petroleum income, coupled with a rapid rise in population, resulted in a decrease in annual per capita GDP from $520 in the mid-1980s to $270 in 1988.

Labor
The Nigerian wage labor force included more than 36 million persons in the mid-1980s. More than 3.5 million workers belong to unions affiliated with the Nigerian Labor Congress.

Agriculture
Most Nigerians are subsistence farmers, producing sorghum, millet, and cattle in the north and maize, rice, and yams in the south. Cassava, legumes, and tomatoes are raised throughout Nigeria, as are poultry, goats, and sheep. Large amounts of plantains and sugarcane also are produced. Palm oil became an export crop to Europe in the early 19th century. Cacao and peanuts later grew in importance, surpassing palm oil as export crops in the early 1950s. Cotton, raised in the north, began to be grown for domestic use in the early part of the 20th century. Most of Nigeria's agricultural goods are grown on small family farms. Large plantations were discouraged until the 1950s, but since then they have been significant in the production of rubber, palm oil, and cacao. Principal crops in the late 1980s (with annual output in metric tons) included cassava, 14 million; sorghum, 4.9 million; millet, 4 million; corn, 1.5 million; and sugarcane, 1.3 million. Livestock included 26 million goats, 13.2 million sheep, and 12.2 million cattle.

Forestry and Fishing
The annual harvest of roundwood in the late 1980s was about 95.5 million cu m (about 3.4 billion cu ft). About 40 percent of Nigeria's annual fish catch comes from the country's rivers and lakes, with most of the rest being taken from the Gulf of Guinea. The annual catch in the late 1980s was about 249,000 metric tons.

Mining
Nigeria is one of the world's leading producers of crude petroleum; the annual output was about 454.2 million barrels in the late 1980s. Nigerian oil has a low sulfur content, making it particularly attractive to American and European buyers seeking to reduce air pollution. Much natural gas also is recovered; in the late 1980s annual production was about 3.7 billion cu m (about 131 billion cu ft) annually. Tin and columbite are mined in the Jos Plateau area, and coal is produced in the Onitsha region. Small amounts of limestone, salt, lignite, and iron ore also are mined.

Manufacturing
Scattered throughout Nigeria are small family businesses producing traditional craft goods—pottery, carvings, ornamental cloth, and leather goods—and more modern consumer goods, such as bricks and other building materials, milled grain, and beverages. In the 1970s, large-scale enterprises were established, mostly in the south. They include motor-vehicle assembly plants, petroleum refineries, and factories producing textiles, rubber goods, pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper, cigarettes, aluminum, iron and steel, and petrochemicals.

Energy
In the late 1980s, about 22 percent of Nigeria's electricity was produced each year in hydroelectric facilities, and almost all the rest was generated in thermal plants. The installed electricity generating capacity was about 4 million kilowatts; yearly production was some 9.9 billion kilowatt-hours.

Transportation
Nigeria depends heavily on its nationwide network of roads. Approximately 48 percent of Nigeria's 124,000 km (77,050 mi) of roads are paved. In the late 1970s expressways linking Lagos to Ibadan and Benin City were built. Railroads have declined in importance because of competition from Nigeria's road system. The country has about 3500 km (about 2175 mi) of operated railroad track. The main seaports are at Lagos, Port Harcourt, Warri, Calabar, Bonny, and Burutu. International airports are located at Lagos and Kano, and smaller airfields serve other major cities. Nigeria Airways, the government-owned airline, offers international service.

Currency and Banking
The national currency of Nigeria is the naira, which is divided into 100 kobo (21.89 naira equal U.S.$1; 1993). Currency and banking are supervised by the Central Bank of Nigeria (1958). A number of European and American banks have offices in Nigeria; however, since 1976, all banks operating in the country have been required to have ownership that is at least 60 percent Nigerian.

Commerce
Much of the internal trade of Nigeria revolves around the sale of foodstuffs and domestically produced consumer goods. Open-air markets, often operated by women, and small general stores, some owned by Lebanese, are widespread. Modern department stores are found in the large cities. Lagos, Onitsha, Aba, Kano, and Ibadan are major commercial centers.

Foreign Trade
In the late 1980s Nigeria's annual imports cost about $4.9 billion, and its exports earned about $7.3 billion. Sales of crude petroleum accounted for more than 95 percent of the export earnings. Major imports included motor vehicles and parts, machinery, basic manufactured goods, and foodstuffs. Nigeria's principal trade partners are the United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, the Netherlands, and Japan.

History
Little is known about the history of Nigeria in ancient times, but archaeologists have discovered evidence of a Neolithic (circa 800 BC-AD 200) culture at Nok, southwest of the city of Jos in central Nigeria.

Early States
The northern part of the present territory of Nigeria was the site of organized states during the Middle Ages. By the 8th century, the region southwest of Lake Chad was part of the Kanem-Bornu Empire, which in 1086 adopted Islam. By about 1300 Bornu was a flourishing center of Islamic culture, rivaling Mali in the west. Bornu reached its zenith as an independent kingdom under Idris Alooma, who extended his rule over many of the eastern Hausa states that had existed in the area west of Kanem-Bornu since the 11th century; the western states fell under the sway of Songhai. Following the breakup of Songhai and the decline of Kanem-Bornu in the late 16th century, the Hausa states regained their independence and continued to flourish until the early 19th century. The Fulani, who then burst into prominence under Usuman dan Fodio, had been established throughout Hausaland since the late 16th century. In the southern part of the country, the Yoruba had their own states in the west, centering on Ife and Oyo; the Edo ruled in Benin in the present south-central parts; and the Ibo in the east, in and north of the Niger delta. All these people had functioning states before or around AD 1400.

British Encroachment
The Portuguese, British, and others established slave-trading stations in the Niger delta area in the 17th and 18th centuries. The interior was first penetrated by explorers seeking the source of the Niger River, notably the Scottish traveler Mungo Park in 1795 and 1796 and the British explorers Richard Lemon Lander and John Lander in 1830 and 1831. In the 19th century palm oil became so important an article of commerce that the delta region was known as Oil Rivers. A British consul was sent to Calabar and later to Lagos, where British traders were firmly established. In 1861 Great Britain took full possession of Lagos Island.
After the conclusion of several treaties with native chiefs, the British Oil Rivers Protectorate was established in southern Nigeria. In 1886 the Royal Niger Company was granted a charter under which it governed the territory of the protectorate, raising an armed constabulary and establishing government services. The name of the protectorate was changed in 1893 to the Niger Coast Protectorate. The kingdom of Benin in the southwest was added to the area in 1897 and, after further expansion in the southeast, the region became the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria in 1900. The charter of the Royal Niger Company was revoked in the same year, and the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria was proclaimed.

The Protectorates
Neither of the two protectorates was under full British control at the time of its establishment. The entire area of present Nigeria was, however, acknowledged to be British under agreements made between Great Britain, Germany, and France that divided much of Africa into so-called spheres of influence. British troops engaged in military conflicts with followers of Muslim emirs in the north and with Nigerian peoples who were still engaged in slave trade after it had been prohibited by the British in 1807. British domination became complete in 1914, when the two administrations were merged as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. For administrative purposes the country was divided into the Colony of Lagos and two groups of provinces in the protectorate, the Northern and Southern provinces.
Frederick Dealtry Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard, was the first governor-general of united Nigeria. He left some local functions of government to the traditional tribal chiefs or councils, which acted under the supervision and with the assistance and advice of British administrators. In 1922 the League of Nations mandate of Cameroons was added, administratively, to the protectorate. In the same year the Nigerian legislative council, which had limited legislative authority over the Colony of Lagos and the Southern provinces, was inaugurated; the Northern provinces remained under the jurisdiction of a British governor. The former League of Nations mandate of Cameroons became a United Nations trust territory in 1946 and remained under British administration.

Independence
Nigerian demands for self-government after World War II resulted in a series of short-lived constitutions. The first, in 1947, established provincial legislatures with limited native participation in the government. By succeeding constitutional changes, Nigeria was provided with a federal type of government, and the provinces were consolidated into three regions (Eastern, Western, and Northern), each with a measure of autonomy. In 1954 Nigeria became a federation and each region was given the option, dependent on certain safeguards for the federation, to assume a self-governing status. Internal self-government was granted to the Eastern and Western regions in 1957 and to the Northern Region in 1959.
On October 1, 1960, Nigeria became independent within the Commonwealth of Nations. On October 7 it was admitted to membership in the United Nations. The first prime minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, headed a coalition government representing the major parties of the Northern and Eastern regions. The governor-general was Nnamdi Azikiwe, who became president when Nigeria adopted a republican form of government on October 1, 1963. Meanwhile, on February 11 and 12, 1961, the northern section of the former British Cameroons voted to become a part of Nigeria.

Internal Strains
From the early days of independence, ethnic antagonisms and religious and political differences seriously strained the unity of the federation. In 1962 a major political crisis developed in the Western Region, which was dominated by the Yoruba and their political party, called the Action Group. The Action Group, which had constituted the chief opposition bloc to the ruling coalition in the federal parliament, split in two during the year. Its parliamentary leader, who had expressed fear of a federal plot to break the party's power, was indicted for treason in 1963 and sentenced to ten years' imprisonment. Meanwhile, as the result of a referendum held in mid-1963 in two districts of the Western Region where non-Yoruba peoples were a majority, a new Mid-West Region was formed.

Civil War
Political bickering and corruption that left young officers increasingly impatient finally culminated in a military coup in January 1966. Prime Minister Balewa and two regional premiers were killed. A military government was established by the army commander Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, who abolished the federal system. In July Northern officers led a countercoup and killed Ironsi. His successor, Major General Yakubu Gowon, revived the federation. During this period many Ibo living in the north were killed or sought refuge in their homelands in the east.
Relations between the federal government and the Ibo continued to deteriorate. In May 1967 the federal government announced its intention to split the Eastern Region into three states, which would leave the Ibo without access to the sea and cut them off from the region's oil-rich areas. The Eastern Region then seceded and proclaimed itself the Republic of Biafra. Civil war broke out in July and lasted for two and a half years before Biafran resistance was overcome in January 1970.

Oil Wealth
As life in the Eastern Region returned to normal, Nigeria enjoyed four years of rapid economic growth, fueled by expanding oil revenues, as the country became the fifth largest producer of petroleum in the world. Continued military rule, however, despite promises of return to a civilian government, led to renewed political instability. Gowon was ousted on July 29, 1975, in a bloodless coup led by Brigadier Murtala Ramat Muhammad. Muhammad was himself assassinated in an unsuccessful coup attempt on February 13, 1976. His successor, Lieutenant General Olusegun Obasanjo, presided over the preparations for return to civilian rule, which culminated in the promulgation of a new constitution and in the election of a new president, Alhaji Shehu Shagari, in the summer of 1979.
The Shagari government, like its predecessors, tried to use oil income to fund an ambitious development program; in addition, Shagari sought to implement a “green revolution” that would stimulate agricultural productivity and lessen the nation's increasing dependence on food imports. The weakening of the oil market in the early 1980s dealt a crippling blow to these efforts. Revenues from oil exports, which exceeded $20 billion in 1980, declined to $10 billion in 1982, and Nigeria was unable to repay its short-term debts. With foreign exchange scarce, Nigeria could no longer afford essential imports, and the economy, already weakened by mismanagement and corruption, sank into severe recession.
In January 1983 the government ordered the expulsion of all unskilled foreigners. At least 1 million people left, although many soon returned. That August, Shagari won reelection; his political organization, the National Party of Nigeria, also showed commanding strength in subsequent voting for the federal legislature and for state offices. Nigeria's economic position continued to worsen, and in 1983 Shagari was deposed in a coup led by Major General Muhammad Buhari. Buhari installed a rigid austerity program that alienated many people. In 1985 he was ousted in a bloodless coup led by Major General Ibrahim Babangida, who rescinded the most unpopular decrees. Babangida renegotiated some of Nigeria's debts and eased government controls over business, thus improving the economy. In early 1990 he thwarted a coup attempt. Local elections were held in 1990, parliamentary elections, in 1992. Elections for a civilian president were held in June 1993. Moshood Abiola, a millionaire businessman, was the apparent winner, but Babangida annulled the election results. In August Babangida stepped down as president, relinquishing power to an interim government. Nigeria's defense minister, General Sani Abacha, overthrew the transitional government in November and banned all political activity.