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Afghanistan Education
Education
 Although elementary schooling is free and compulsory for children aged 7
through 15, only about 25 percent of the people aged 15 or more years
are literate. In the late 1980s, elementary and secondary schools had an
annual enrollment of more than 700,000 students. Institutions of higher
education had an enrollment of some 10,000 students. The University of
Kabul, founded in 1932, is the country's main institute of higher
education. The smaller University of Nangarhar (1962) is in Jalalabad.
In addition, the School of Commerce (1943), Kabul Polytechnic (1951),
and the University of Islamic Studies (1988) are in Kabul.
Afghanistan
(Persian Afghánistán), republic in southwestern Asia, bounded on the
north by Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan; on the east by China,
Jammu and Kashmir, and Pakistan; on the south by Pakistan; and on the
west by Iran. The country's official name is Republic of Afghanistan.
Afghanistan is roughly elliptical in shape and has a maximum length,
from northeast to southwest, of about 1450 km (about 900 miles) and a width
of about 725 km (about 450 miles). It has an area of 647,497 sq km (250,000
sq miles), about the same as the state of Texas, with which it also
compares in geographic latitude.
Land and Resources
Afghanistan is a predominantly mountainous country; about three-fourths
of its surface consists of uplands. The main lowlands are a series of
river valleys in the north and various desert regions in the south and
southwest. The principal mountain system of the country is the Hindu
Kush, which, with its various offshoots, extends for about 965 km (about
600 miles) from the Pamirs, a range in the northeast, to the borders of
Iran in the west. The average altitude of the Hindu Kush is about 4270 m
(about 14,000 ft); some peaks are about 7620 m (about 25,000 ft) high.
Natural passes penetrate the mountains of Afghanistan at various points,
facilitating travel within the nation as well as communication with
neighboring countries. In the Hindu Kush the only pass lower than 3050 m
(10,000 ft) is the Shibar (2987 m/9800 ft), which connects the Kabul
region with the northern part of the country. Probably the best known of
the mountain passes is the historic Khyber Pass on the northeastern
border, which traverses the Sulaiman Range and affords relatively easy
access to Pakistan.
Rivers
The chief rivers of Afghanistan are the Amu Darya, known in ancient
times as the Oxus, on the border of Tajikistan; the Kabul, which flows
into the Indus River; the Helmand, the longest river in the country, in
the south; and the Hari Rud, in the west. All these rivers except the
Kabul empty into lakes or swamps.
Climate
Climatic conditions in Afghanistan exhibit great daily and seasonal
variations, largely because of the extremes in elevation that
characterize the country. During the day, variations in temperature may
range from freezing conditions at dawn to almost 38° C (100° F) at noon.
Summer temperatures as high as 49° C (120° F) have been recorded in the
northern valleys. Midwinter temperatures as low as -9.4° C (15° F) are
common at the 1980-m (6500-ft) level in the Hindu Kush. Kabul, situated
at an elevation of about 1830 m (about 6000 ft), has cold winters and
pleasant summers. Jalalabad (about 550 m/about 1800 ft high) is
subtropical, and the climate of Kandahar (about 1070 m/about 3500 ft
high) is mild. Afghanistan is a relatively dry country, the annual
rainfall averaging about 305 mm (about 12 in). Most of the rainfall
occurs between October and April. Sandstorms occur frequently in the
deserts and arid plains.
Natural Resources
Despite the arid climate and mountainous terrain, the natural resources
of Afghanistan are mainly agricultural. A variety of mineral deposits
exists, but transportation difficulties, war, and lack of native
technical skills and equipment have hindered full exploitation of such
resources. Much natural gas is located in the north, and the country
also has major deposits of iron ore.
Arid climate and mountainous terrain are mainly responsible for the
relative lack of soil development. The larger tracts of arable land in
the fertile valleys are the only well-developed natural resource in
Afghanistan.
Plants
The plant life of Afghanistan resembles that of Tibet and the Himalayan
region in general, as well as that of the Middle Eastern plains and
deserts. Forests of cedar, pine, and other conifers are found at
elevations of about 1830 to 3660 m (about 6000 to 12,000 ft). As the
result of overcutting, forests now occupy only about 3 percent of the
land area. At lower elevations are found such shrubs and trees as hazel,
pistachio, ash, juniper, and tragacanth. Below the 914-m (3000-ft)
level, vegetation, consisting largely of herbs and some shrubs, is quite
sparse. Many varieties of wildflowers bloom in the spring, both in the
mountains and on the grassy steppes. Forest products include resin,
asafetida, and pińon (pine nuts), as well as timber and firewood. Among
the various fruit trees are the apricot, peach, pear, apple, almond, and
walnut. Date palms flourish in the extreme south, and pomegranates and
citrus fruit grow in the vicinity of Kandahar and Jalalabad. Grapes and
melons of excellent quality and unusual variety are common.
Animals
Indian, European, and Middle Eastern fauna inhabit Afghanistan. The
dromedary and the Bactrian camel abound. Indigenous wild animals include
mountain sheep, bear, ibex, gazelle, wolf, jackal, wildcat, hedgehog,
and fox. The principal domesticated animals are sheep, cattle, and
goats; others include donkeys, horses, mules, and the Afghan hound, a
breed of hunting dog. The Karakul sheep of Afghanistan are famous for
their pelts. Waterfowl, pheasants, quail, and many varieties of smaller
land and shore birds are also found.
Population
The population, predominantly rural, can be divided into four main
ethnic groups. The Pathans, or true Afghans, make up about 50 percent of
the total population and are divided into two subgroups, the Durani and
Ghilzais. The Tajiks, of Iranian stock, make up about 25 percent, and
most of the remainder consists of Uzbeks (9 percent) and Hazaras (9
percent).
Social mobility has become greater since the 1950s. The power of family
patriarchs has been lessened, and women have been largely emancipated.
Population Characteristics
A 1979 census placed the population at 15,551,358, including 2.5 million
nomads. The overall population density was 24 persons per sq km (62 per
sq miles). The resident population was estimated at 16,560,000 in 1990;
another 5.6 million Afghans were refugees living in Pakistan and Iran.
In 1993 the United Nations High Commission on Refugees reported that in
1992 the largest refugee population was from Afghanistan, numbering
about 4.5 million, of which 2.9 million were in Iran. By the end of that
year, 1.5 million had returned to Afghanistan from Pakistan. More than
80 percent of the people live and work in rural areas, and approximately
2.6 million still lead a nomadic life.
Political Divisions
For administrative purposes, Afghanistan is divided into 31 provinces:
Badakhshan, Badghis, Baghlan, Balkh, Bamian, Farah, Faryab, Ghazně, Ghor,
Helmand, Herat, Jouzjan, Kabul, Kandahar, Kapisa, Kunar, Kondoz, Laghman,
Logar, Nangarhar, Nimruz, Nuristan, Paktika, Parwan, Patya, Samangan,
Sar-i-Pul, Takhar, Uruzgan, Wardak, and Zabul.
The capital of Afghanistan is Kabul (population, 1988 estimate,
1,424,400), which, from its eastern location, commands vital routes
through the mountain passes. Other major cities are the trading centers
of Kandahar (225,500) and Herat (177,300), known for its many ancient
mosques, palaces, and other architectural relics.
Religion
More than 99 percent of the people of Afghanistan are Muslims, mainly of
the Sunni sect. Most of the remainder, notably the Hazara, belong to the
Shiite sect. Small colonies of Jews, Hindus, and Parsis are scattered in
the towns. Mazar-i-Sharif is the leading place of pilgrimage.
Language
Pashto and Persian (Dari), divisions of the Iranian linguistic group,
are the official languages of Afghanistan. Although Pashto has quite an
extensive literature, Persian is used for cultural expression and
business and government transactions. Of the many dialects spoken, the
Turkish Uzbek, Turkoman, and Kirgiz are most prevalent in the border
regions.
Libraries and Museums
The few major libraries are located in Kabul. The Kabul Museum, largest
in the country, is best known for its collection of early Buddhist
relics.
Literature
The ancient art of storytelling continues to flourish in Afghanistan
largely as a result of the widespread illiteracy. The Afghanistan
Historical Society and the Pashto Academy, however, publish literary
magazines and encourage new writers.
Art, Music, and Sports
Afghan cultural life is characterized by traditional arts and pastimes.
Gold and silver jewelry, rugs in the Persian style, and various leather
goods are still made at home. Music is represented chiefly by
traditional folk songs, ballads, and dances. The attan is the national
dance. It is performed in a large circle with the dancers clapping their
hands and quickening the movements of their feet to the beat of the
music. Popular sports include polo; ghosai, a team sport similar to
wrestling; and buzkashi, a goal game that uses an animal carcass in
place of a ball or puck.
Economy
Afghanistan is one of the world's poorest countries, with annual income
per capita estimated at only $220. The economy is based on private
ownership, modified by a limited form of socialism. A series of
five-year plans for the development of industry, agriculture, mining,
transportation, and social services was initiated in 1962. All mineral
resources are owned by the state. In the late 1970s and the 1980s the
economy was disrupted by occupation of the country by military forces of
the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), and by Afghan
guerrilla resistance to the occupying forces. In the mid-1980s annual
government expenditures were estimated at about $650 million, including
$370 million in capital spending.
About 80 percent of the population is engaged in animal husbandry or the
cultivation of crops. The two most pressing labor problems are
widespread unemployment and a lack of skilled workers and
administrators.
Agriculture
Agriculture is the main source of income in Afghanistan; the country
usually produces enough food products for its own needs and a surplus
for export. The leading crops are wheat, corn, rice, barley, garden
vegetables, various fruits, and nuts. The major industrial crops are
castor beans, madder (used for red dyes), asafetida (a medicinal resin),
tobacco, cotton, and sugar beets. Sheep raising, the most important
pastoral industry, usually provides large quantities of meat, fats, and
wool for domestic consumption and wool and hides for export; there were
an estimated 12 million head of sheep in the late 1980s. The skin of the
Karakul, a breed of broadtail sheep raised in large numbers in northern
Afghanistan, is highly valued. Livestock also includes substantial
numbers of camels, horses, donkeys, cattle, goats, and poultry.
Mining
Since ancient times, deposits of gold, silver, copper, beryl, and lapis
lazuli have been mined in small quantities in the mountainous areas.
Salt has been mined in increasing quantities, and production now meets
the needs of the country. Coal deposits have been exploited, and
production rose to an estimated 167,000 metric tons per year in 1987.
Large natural-gas deposits in northern Afghanistan were developed with
Soviet financing. Gas began flowing to the USSR in the mid-1970s. Other
deposits, such as iron ore, sulfur, chrome, zinc, and uranium, are still
largely unexploited.
Manufacturing
During the 1960s and 1970s, manufacturing greatly increased. With the
opening in 1965 of a large West German-built wool mill, woolen-textile
production was more than doubled. Among the other factories, located
primarily in Kabul, are plants manufacturing textiles, the most
important manufactured export product; footwear; government-operated
cement plants; a fruit-processing plant; a coal-briquetting plant; and
several cotton gins. The chief cottage industry (work done at home) is
the weaving of rugs.
Energy
About 60 percent of Afghanistan's electricity is produced in
hydroelectric facilities, and most of the rest is generated by thermal
plants using coal or petroleum products. Major hydroelectric projects
are situated on the Helmand and Kabul rivers. In 1989, Afghanistan
annually produced about 1.1 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity.
Currency and Banking
The unit of currency is the afghani, which is divided into 100 puls
(50.6 afghanis equal 1 U.S. dollar; 1991). The Central Bank of
Afghanistan issues all notes, executes government loans, and lends money
to cities and to other banks. All private banks in Afghanistan were
nationalized in 1975.
Trade
Most of the foreign trade of Afghanistan is controlled by the government
or by government-controlled monopolies. For the year ending March 20,
1991, annual exports earned about $235.1 million, and yearly imports
cost $884 million. The USSR was the leading trading partner in that
year. Principal exports are natural gas (42 percent), dried fruits and
nuts (26 percent), cotton, rugs, and Karakul skins. The leading
purchasers of Afghan products, in addition to the USSR, have been
Pakistan, Great Britain, Germany, and India. Imports include textiles,
building materials, petroleum, machinery, hardware, tea, and sugar.
Transportation
Travel within Afghanistan is severely limited by the rugged terrain. The
country has no railroads, and its narrow, fast-flowing rivers are
unnavigable and are used chiefly for transporting timber. Camels and
other pack animals are extensively employed for conveying goods. The
country has about 22,000 km (about 13,700 miles) of roads, mostly unpaved.
Main highways link Kabul with the provincial capitals. Access to
Pakistan is afforded by roads that traverse the Khyber Pass. Road
maintenance is a constant problem in Afghanistan, mainly because of
violent spring floods. Bakhtar Afghan Airlines is the nation's
international and domestic air carrier.
Communications
The state-controlled telephone and telegraph lines serve all principal
cities and smaller towns as well. Telegraphic communications exist among
the major cities and between Kabul and Peshawar. In the mid-1980s about
32,000 telephones were in use.
Six newspapers appeared regularly in the late 1980s. The government
broadcasting network serves about 150,000 radios and 20,000 television
receivers.
Government
Afghanistan was a monarchy until 1973, when the king was overthrown and
a republic proclaimed. A constitution promulgated in February 1977
vested broad powers in the president, made Afghanistan a one-party
state, and installed Islam as the state religion. Legislative power was
vested in a parliament (Shura), consisting of an upper house (House of
the Elders) and a lower house (House of the People). This constitution
was suspended in April 1978 following a coup d'état, and the
Revolutionary Council became the country's chief governing body.
In 1987 the Soviet-backed Communist government issued a new constitution
providing for a president to be indirectly elected to a seven-year term.
The bicameral National Assembly (Meli Shura) consisted of the Senate and
the House of Representatives. The People's Democratic party controlled
the government, but 50 of the 234 seats in the House of Representatives
were reserved for opposition parties.
Following the withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1989 and the ouster of the
Communist regime in April 1992, an interim council took power. An
indirect election for president took place in December 1992.
Judiciary
The highest tribunal in Afghanistan is the supreme court. The military
revolutionary court handles civilian as well as military cases.
Local Government
Each province is administered by a governor appointed by the central
government. The provinces are divided into districts and subdistricts.
Health and Welfare
The government has increased its efforts to provide for the welfare of
the people. A program of preventive medicine against communicable
diseases is well under way. Nevertheless, health conditions remain poor,
the infant mortality rate is high, and average life expectancy was only
about 42 years in the late 1980s.
Defense
All male citizens from 15 to 55 years of age may be conscripted into the
army of Afghanistan for a period of three years or more. In the late
1980s the army numbered about 50,000. In addition, the country had an
air force with some 5000 members.
History
Afghanistan first appeared in recorded history in the 6th century BC,
when it was included in the Persian empire of the Achaemenids. Along
with the rest of the Persian Empire, the region was subjugated, about
330 BC, by Alexander the Great. After his death in 323 BC, most of the
region fell under the domination of Alexander's general, Seleucus I
Nicator and later under that of the Indian king Chandragupta. Later
another Greek dynasty established itself in Bactria (northern
Afghanistan) and founded a state that lasted from 256 BC until about 130
BC. The Greco-Bactrian state yielded in turn to Iranian nomads called
the Sakas and then to the Kushans, who adopted Buddhism. In the 3rd and
4th centuries AD, the Sassanid Persians invaded the country from the
west. The Ephthalites, or White Huns, were largely in control of
Afghanistan when the conquering Arabs swept the region in the middle of
the 7th century.
Early Muslim Dynasties
Arab penetration affected Afghanistan probably more decisively than any
previous foreign influence. Centuries passed, however, before Islam
became the dominant religion. Arab political control was superseded
meanwhile by Iranian and Turkish rule. Complete Turkish ascendancy in
the area was established late in the 10th century and early in the 11th
century by the Muslim sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. Islamic culture
subsequently achieved brilliant heights under the Afghan or Iranian
Ghuri dynasty (1148-1215). The Ghurids gradually extended their rule
into northern India, but were overwhelmed by the hordes of the Mongol
conqueror Genghis Khan, who came down from the north about 1220. Most of
the country remained under Mongol control until the close of the 14th
century, when another Mongol invader, Tamerlane, seized northern
Afghanistan. Among Tamerlane's most prominent successors was Babur,
founder of the Mughal dynasty of India, who conquered Kabul about 1504.
Later in the 16th century, Safavids from Iran and Uzbeks from the north
made inroads into the region. The Iranians and the Mughal successors of
Babur faced continuous Afghan revolts.
The Foundation of the Afghan State
During the 17th century, the native Afghans began to grow in power. The
Ghilzai tribe conquered the Iranian capital of Isfahan in 1722.
Subsequently, a vigorous Iranian counteroffensive was launched by Nadir
Shah, who in 1738 reestablished Iranian authority over virtually all of
Afghanistan. Nadir was assassinated in 1747, whereupon the Afghan chiefs
selected one of his generals, a member of the Abdali tribe named Ahmad
Shah, as their ruler. Ahmad Shah became known as Durri-i-Dauran (“Pearl
of the Age”). The Abdali were thus designated thereafter as the Durani.
Ahmad Shah substantially enlarged his realm, acquiring eastern Iran,
Balochistan, Kashmir, and part of the Punjab. The emirate disintegrated,
however, under the succeeding rulers of his dynasty, falling in 1818.
Anarchy prevailed in Afghanistan during the ensuing period. In 1826 Dost
Muhammad Khan, a member of a prominent Afghan family, seized control of
eastern Afghanistan, assuming the title of emir in 1835.
Conflicts with Britain
Meanwhile, Dost Muhammad had appealed to British colonial authorities in
India for support of Afghan territorial claims in the Punjab. When the
British rejected his appeal, he turned to Russia for help.
First Afghan War
Fearful that the Russian sphere of influence would be extended to the
Indian frontiers, the British governor-general in India, George Eden,
Earl of Auckland, presented Dost Muhammad with an ultimatum that
included demands for the expulsion of a Russian representative at Kabul.
These British demands were refused, and in March 1838 an Anglo-Indian
army invaded Afghanistan, precipitating the First Afghan War
(1838-1842). Meeting little effective opposition, the invaders captured
Kandahar in April 1839 and Ghazně the following July. When Kabul fell in
August, Shah Shuja, a grandson of Ahmad Shah, was installed on the
Afghan throne in place of Dost Muhammad, who gave himself up to the
British.
On November 2, 1841, Akbar Khan, a son of Dost Muhammad, led a
successful revolt against Shah Shuja and the Anglo-Indian garrisons in
the country. An Anglo-Indian punitive expedition reinforced the
garrisons for a brief period, but in December 1842 the British finally
left the country. Dost Muhammad was then released from custody and
allowed to resume his throne.
Relations between Afghanistan and British-held India remained tense
until 1855, when Dost Muhammad concluded a peace agreement with the
Indian government.
Second Afghan War
Fratricidal strife among the emir's sons kept the country in turmoil for
more than a decade after his death in 1863. Shere Ali Khan, his third
son and successor, aroused the enmity of the British by adopting a
friendly policy toward Russia in 1878. Another British ultimatum was
ignored, and in November 1878 Anglo-Indian forces again invaded
Afghanistan. In the course of the ensuing conflict, known as the Second
Afghan War (1878-1879), the Afghans suffered a series of severe
reversals. Kabul was occupied in October 1879; Yakub Khan, son of Shere
Ali, who had succeeded to the throne the preceding March, was forced to
abdicate; and, in 1880, Abd-ar-Rahman Khan, grandson of Dost Muhammad,
was placed on the throne.
Subsequent Anglo-Afghan Relations
The new ruler confirmed the cession, previously arranged with the
British by Yakub Khan, of the Khyber Pass and other Afghan territories.
During his reign, which lasted until 1901, Abd-ar-Rahman Khan settled
boundary disputes with India and Russia, created a standing army, and
curbed the power of various tribal chieftains.
In 1907, during the reign of Habibullah Khan, the son and successor of
Abd-ar-Rahman, the British and Russian governments concluded a
convention pledging mutual respect for the territorial integrity of
Afghanistan. Habibullah was assassinated in February 1919. His brother,
Nasrullah Khan, who held the throne for only six days, was deposed by
the Afghan nobility in favor of Amanullah Khan, the son of Habibullah.
Determined to completely remove his country from the British sphere of
influence, Amanullah declared war on Great Britain in May 1919. The
British, faced at the same time with the growing Indian liberation
movement, negotiated a peace treaty with Afghanistan the following
August. By the terms of the agreement, concluded at Rawalpindi, Great
Britain recognized Afghanistan as a sovereign and independent nation. In
1926 Amanullah Khan changed his title from emir to king.
Modernization
The popularity and prestige that King Amanullah had won through his
handling of the British were soon to be dissipated. Deeply impressed by
the modernization programs of Iran and Turkey, he instituted a series of
political, social, and religious reforms. Constitutional rule was
inaugurated in 1923, the titles of the nobility were abolished,
education for women was decreed, and other sweeping measures aimed at
the modernization of traditional institutions were enforced. The
hostility provoked by the king's reform program led to a rebellion in
1929, and Amanullah quickly abdicated and went into exile. His brother,
Inayatullah, who succeeded him, was deposed by Bacha Sakau, a rebel
leader, after a reign of three days. In 1929, Amanullah's uncle, Nadir
Shah, supported by several thousand tribesmen, defeated the rebels and
executed Bacha Sakau. The crown was given to Nadir Shah.
The new ruler gradually restored order in the kingdom. In 1932 he
initiated a program of economic reforms, but he was assassinated the
following year. His son and successor, Zahir Shah, who was only 19 years
old at the time of his accession, was dominated for the next 30 years by
his uncles and cousins, particularly by his cousin and later
brother-in-law, Prince Muhammad Daud Khan. The government intensified
the modernization program begun by Nadir Shah and established close
commercial relations with Germany, Italy, and Japan. Zahir Shah
proclaimed neutrality at the outbreak of World War II in 1939; in 1941,
however, at the request of Great Britain and the Soviet Union, more than
200 German and Italian agents were expelled from the country. The United
States established diplomatic relations with Afghanistan in 1942. In
November 1946 Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations.
The Pashtunistan Dispute
The Afghan government closely scrutinized the events that attended the
establishment in 1947 of India and Pakistan as independent states. Of
particular concern was the incorporation into Pakistan of the North-West
Frontier Province Tribal Areas, a neighboring region largely populated
by Pathans. Pakistan ignored Afghan demands for a plebiscite in the
Tribal Areas on the question of self-determination. In retaliation, in
1947 Afghanistan voted against the admission of Pakistan to the United
Nations. Relations between the two countries continued to be strained
during the next several years. Sporadic frontier clashes occurred
between Pakistani forces and Pathan tribesmen, especially after 1949,
when the latter, with the approval of the Afghan government, launched a
movement to establish an independent state to be called Pashtunistan or
Pathanistan.
Afghanistan manifested displeasure over a U.S.-Pakistan military-aid
pact concluded in 1954. The following year, Soviet Premier Nikolai A.
Bulganin, visiting Afghanistan, proclaimed support for a state of
Pashtunistan. Subsequently the USSR and Afghanistan issued a joint
statement advocating peaceful coexistence, universal disarmament, and
United Nations membership for China. The Soviet government
simultaneously extended technical-aid loans to Afghanistan.
Relations between Pakistan and Afghanistan improved briefly during the
late 1950s. In 1961, however, the Pashtunistan dispute flared up, and
relations were not fully restored until 1967.
King Zahir's Personal Rule
In 1963 King Zahir removed his cousin Muhammad Daud, who had been prime
minister since 1953, and took full control of the reins of government.
The following year he promulgated a new constitution, providing for a
more liberal form of government. The first legislative elections under
the new constitution were held in September 1965.
Afghanistan experienced major economic difficulties in the late 1960s.
The situation was worsened by three years of drought, during which
80,000 persons are believed to have died of starvation. By 1973, the
Soviet Union, the United States, and China were all sending aid.
The Republic and the Growth of Soviet Influence
In 1968 King Zahir had made overtures to Daud, and a degree of harmony
was believed to have been restored between them. In July 1973, however,
Daud seized power, deposed the king, and proclaimed Afghanistan a
republic. A new constitution was approved in early 1977, and Daud was
elected to the powerful post of president. He appointed a civilian
cabinet and maintained the country's policy of nonalignment. In April
1978 Daud was killed during a violent coup d'état. The new rulers,
organized in a Revolutionary Council led first by Noor Muhammad Taraki,
and later by Hafizullah Amin, suspended the constitution and initiated a
program of “scientific socialism.” This led to armed resistance by
devout Muslims, especially among the mountain tribes.
Unable to contain the rebellion, Taraki and Amin turned to the USSR for
help. Despite Soviet military aid, resistance to the government
continued in 1979. In December of that year, Amin was overthrown and
killed in a Soviet-backed coup, and Afghanistan was occupied by Soviet
troops. The USSR then installed Babrak Karmal, a previous vice president
who had been purged and exiled in 1978, as president. Although Karmal
diligently tried to placate the rebels, the insurgency persisted, and
more than 3 million refugees fled to neighboring Pakistan. During the
mid-1980s, government forces and about 118,000 Soviet troops held major
cities and roads but were unable to dislodge the rebels. In May 1986,
probably at Soviet instigation, Karmal was replaced by Muhammad
Najibullah, formerly chief of state police. Between May 1988 and
February 1989 the USSR withdrew all combat troops, but the civil war
continued. Najibullah was deposed in April 1992, and rebels took over
Kabul. The rival factions then agreed on an interim council to govern
Afghanistan, with Burhanuddin Rabbani as provisional president. In
December 1992, a special assembly voted to confirm President Rabbani for
a two-year term, but factional fighting persisted. On June 17, 1993,
Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, the leader of the fundamentalist Shiite military
faction Hezb-i-Islami, was sworn in as prime minister. On September 27,
1993, leaders of the guerrilla factions agreed on an interim
constitution as a prelude to elections in 1994. However, on January 1,
1994, fighting erupted in Kabul between troops loyal to President
Rabbani and those loyal to Prime Minister Hekmatyar and his ally, former
Communist general Abdul Rashid Dostam. By the end of June 1994 the
fighting had spread to other parts of Afghanistan, and more than 2500
people had been killed.
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