Saudi Arabia
Education
Education
in Saudi Arabia is free but not compulsory. In the late 1980s the
country had approximately 7680 elementary schools with a total annual
enrolment of about 1, 484, 700 pupils and 3030 secondary schools with
some 620, 200 students. In recent decades, teacher-training institutes
have been established with the aim of reducing the country's great
dependence on other Arab countries for teachers. King Saud University
was founded as the University of Riyadh in 1957; the Islamic University,
in Medina, in 1961; King Abdulaziz University, in Jiddah, in 1967; King
Faisal University, in Ad Dammam, in 1975; and Umm al-Qura University, in
Mecca, in 1979. Founded in Riyadh in 1953, the Islamic University of
Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud attained university status in 1974. Three other
institutions of advanced learning are the Technical Institute (1964), at
Riyadh, the King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (1963), at
Dhahran, and a college of Islamic studies, founded in 1933, at Mecca.
Additional institutes for religious training are located in Riyadh and
other cities and towns. Instruction at the higher levels is frequently
in English, which, after Arabic, is the major language. Altogether, some
114, 500 students were enrolled annually in the late 1980s in
institutions of higher education in Saudi Arabia. Every year a number of
qualified young Saudis enroll for advanced study in Europe and the
United States. Saudi Arabia, monarchy of Southwest Asia, occupying most of the Arabian
Peninsula, and bounded on the north by Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait; on the
east by the Persian Gulf and Qatar; on the southeast by the United Arab
Emirates and Oman; on the south by the Republic of Yemen and on the west
by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. Boundaries in the southeast and
south are not precisely defined. Saudi Arabia has an area of about
2, 240, 000 sq km (about 864, 869 sq mi). The capital and largest city is
Riyadh. Land and Resources Considerably more than half the area of Saudi Arabia is desert. Rub al-Khali,
known in English as the Great Sandy Desert and as the Empty Quarter,
extends over much of the southeast and beyond the southern frontier.
Largely unexplored, Rub al-Khali has an estimated area of about 777, 000
sq km (about 300, 000 sq mi). An extension of the Syrian Desert projects
into northern Saudi Arabia, and extending southeast from this region is
an-Nafud, an upland desert of red sand covering an area of about 56, 980
sq km (about 22, 000 sq mi). Ad-Dahna, a narrow extension of this desert,
links an-Nafud and Rub al-Khali. A central plateau region, broken in the
east by a series of uplifts, extends south from an-Nafud. Several wadis
(watercourses), dry except in the rainy season, traverse the plateau
region. The western limits of the latter are delineated by a mountain
range extending generally northwest and southeast along the eastern edge
of Al Hijaz and Asir regions. The highest point in Saudi Arabia, Jabal
Sawda (3207 m/10, 527 ft), is located in the southwestern portion of the
country. Between the range, which has an average elevation of about 1220
m (about 4000 ft), and the Red Sea is a narrow coastal plain. In the
east, along the Persian Gulf, is a low-lying region known as al-Hasa. It
is underlain by great petroleum deposits. Climate Extreme heat and aridity are characteristic of most of Saudi Arabia. The
average temperatures for the months of January and July in Riyadh are
14. 4 C (58 F) and 42 C (108 F). The average temperatures in Jiddah
for the same months are 22. 8 C (73 F) and 30. 6 C (87 F). Average
annual precipitation in Riyadh and Jiddah is 100 mm (4 in) and 81 mm (3
in), respectively. Because of the general aridity, Saudi Arabia has no
permanent rivers or lakes. Natural Resources Fertile oases, many of which are the sites of towns and villages, are
scattered through the Saudi Arabian deserts north of Rub al-Khali, and
larger tracts of pasturage are in ad-Dahna and the plateau region. The
great Saudi Arabian oil fields are located in the coastal area adjoining
the Persian Gulf. Because of the general aridity the vegetation is not
extensive. Various fruit trees, notably the date palm, and a wide
variety of grains and vegetables thrive in the oases and in other areas
where water is available. The indigenous wildlife includes the hyena,
fox, wildcat, panther, wolf, gazelle, antelope, wild cow, ibex, ostrich,
bustard, quail, and pigeon. Population The population of Saudi Arabia is mainly composed (56 percent) of Arabs
whose ancestors have lived in the area for many centuries. A substantial
minority (18 percent) consists of Yemenis and other Arabs, Africans, and
Asians who have come to Saudi Arabia since the 1950s because of the
economic opportunities the country offered. Nomads, known as Bedouins,
make up a declining proportion (27 percent) of the population, and the
number of settled cultivators has also decreased. By the early 1990s 77
percent of the population was urban. The national language is Arabic.
Virtually all Saudis are Muslims. The great majority are Sunnites,
although some Shiites live in the east. The Wahhabi sect, reformers who
began in Arabia during the 18th century and who have sought to purify
and simplify the practice of Islam, has greatly influenced the Sunnites
of Saudi Arabia. Population Characteristics According to a 1993 estimate, Saudi Arabia had a population of
17, 615, 310. The average density was about 8 people per sq km (about 20
per sq mi). Principal Cities The capital of Saudi Arabia is Riyadh (1988 estimate, 2, 000, 000).
Important cities, with their estimated populations in 1986, include
Riyadh, Jiddah (1. 4 million), a port city on the Red Sea; Mecca
(618, 000), one of the great Muslim pilgrimage centers; Medina (500, 000),
a holy city and cultural center of Islam; and Ad Damman (early 1980s,
200, 000), an oil center on the Persian Gulf. In the 1980s, two large new
industrial centers, Al Jubayl, on the Persian Gulf, and Yanbu al-Bahr,
on the Red Sea, were built at an estimated cost of more than $45
billion. Libraries and Museums Some of the largest libraries of Saudi Arabia are situated in Riyadh;
the King Saud University libraries contain more than 1 million volumes.
Collections of religious materials are housed in libraries in Mecca and
in Medina. The Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography, which was founded
in Riyadh in 1978, features displays and exhibits on a wide variety of
topics. Economy Agriculture and stock raising have historically been the basic economic
activities of Saudi Arabia, but since the development of the oil
industry, the government has sought to diversify its industrial base and
improve its basic economic structure, developing roads, airports,
seaports, and the power industry. The main deterrent has been the lack
of trained or skilled labor. With the tremendous increase of world oil
prices beginning in 1973, however, the government set about transforming
its economy at an accelerated rate almost without precedent in modern
history. The estimated annual budget for the late 1980s included revenue
of about $24 billion and expenditure of about $37. 9 billion. Saudi
Arabia's gross domestic product for 1992 was $122. 3 billion. Agriculture
and fishing employed 48 percent of the workforce; trade and services
employed 37 percent; and manufacturing and industry employed 14 percent. Petroleum The Saudi oil industry was founded in 1938 by the Arabian-American Oil
Company (Aramco) when a productive field was found at Ad Damm n on the
Persian Gulf. Aramco was originally owned by four American oil
companies, but in 1974 controlling interest was gained by the Saudi
government. The country's vast reserves and high level of oil production
have made Saudi Arabia a leading producer and a strong voice in the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which has much
influence over international oil pricing. Saudi Arabia's proven reserves
of petroleum exceed 150 billion barrels. Annual production in the late
1980s was some 2 billion barrels of oil; output rose sharply after Iraq
invaded Kuwait in 1990. Only the Soviet Union and the United States
produced more petroleum. Saudi Arabia is the world's leading exporter of
oil. Most oil is produced in the eastern part of the country; offshore
drilling takes place in the Persian Gulf. Saudi Arabia also produces
considerable quantities of natural gas; the annual output in the late
1980s was 23. 2 billion cu m (819 billion cu ft). To facilitate the
movement of crude petroleum to major markets, the Trans-Arabian
Pipeline, known as Tapline, was completed in 1950. It carries crude oil
to Sidon (Sayda), Lebanon, on the Mediterranean Sea. Another pipeline,
linking the eastern oil fields around Buqayq with the Red Sea port of
Yanbu al Bahr, was completed in the early 1980s. Most oil, however,
continued to be exported from Persian Gulf ports, especially Ras Tanura
and Ad Damm n. Development Plans In 1975 the government of Saudi Arabia announced an ambitious five-year
development plan, based on continued oil revenues, calling for
expenditures of about $150 billion. Priority in the industrial sector
was given to the development of a petrochemical industry, to the
building of liquefied natural-gas plants and petroleum-based industries,
and to steel and cement production to facilitate the large-scale
construction required by the plan. A subsequent development plan, for
1980-1985, called for expenditure of some $236 billion, with emphasis on
diversifying industry. The 5-year plan for 1985-1990 called for $277
billion in development spending, but continued weakness in oil prices
and declines in petroleum revenues forced the government to scale down
many programs. Agriculture Because Saudi Arabia has long been a food importer, agriculture is a key
area of development. The lack of water has made less than 1 percent of
the land area useful for farming. Irrigated lands near oases have been
virtually the only sites of cultivation. Many of the foreign workers and
technicians who have been imported are engaged in agricultural projects. Saudi Arabia's leading crops in the late 1980s (with annual output in
metric tons) were wheat, 3 million; watermelons, 320, 000; dates,
495, 000; and tomatoes, 365, 000. Other major crops were barley, sorghum,
dairy products, onions, grapes, tomatoes, and citrus fruit. Livestock
included 7. 5 million sheep, 3. 6 million goats, 325, 000 cattle, and
417, 000 camels. Forestry and Fishing Under 1 percent of Saudi Arabia is forested. Shrimp, the only
significant fish harvest, are taken from the Persian Gulf. Mining Apart from petroleum and petroleum-related products, the only
significant minerals mined in Saudi Arabia are limestone, gypsum,
marble, clay, salt, and gold. Manufacturing Saudi Arabia's manufacturing sector has been diversified since the
1970s. Major products include refined petroleum, petrochemicals,
plastics, processed food, clothing, fertilizer, and cement. In the late
1980s the country annually generated about 37. 1 billion kilowatt-hours
of electricity; almost all was produced by thermal installations. Currency and Foreign Trade Saudi Arabia's unit of currency is the riyal, which is divided into 100
halalah (3. 75 riyal equal U. S. $1; 1994). Because of Saudi Arabia's
reliance on foreign sales of petroleum, its yearly exports rose rapidly
in the 1970s but declined almost as sharply in the 1980s; the nation's
exports dropped from $111 billion in 1981 to $23 billion in 1987, while
imports decreased from $30 billion to $18 billion. Leading imports
include machinery, metal and metal products, transportation equipment,
foodstuffs, and textiles and clothing. Among the principal trade
partners of Saudi Arabia are the United States, Japan, France, Italy,
Germany, South Korea, and the Netherlands. The large numbers of Muslim
pilgrims who each year visit Mecca, the birthplace of the Prophet
Muhammad, and Medina, the site of his tomb, both of which are located in
the west, spend considerable sums of money in Saudi Arabia. Transportation Saudi Arabia has an expanding transportation network. In the late 1980s
the country had about 92, 800 km (about 57, 700 mi) of roads, of which 36
percent were paved. Saudi Arabia was served by some 875 km (some 545 mi)
of operated railroad track, with the main line connecting Riyadh and Ad
Damm n. The ports of Jiddah and Yanbu al Bahr are on the Red Sea, and Al
Jubayl, Ad Damm n, and Ras Tanura are major oil-exporting ports on the
Persian Gulf. Government-run Saudi Arabia Airlines provides domestic and
international flights. Major airports are at Dhahran, Jiddah, and
Riyadh. Communications Saudi Arabia has 10 daily newspapers, 3 of which are published in
English. The government operates radio and television broadcasting
services, and in the late 1980s about 4 million radios and 3. 8 million
television receivers were in use. More than 1 million telephones were in
operation at the time. Government Saudi Arabia is a monarchy. The government is based on the Sharia, the
sacred law of Islam, which is interpreted according to the strict
Hanbali rite by the learned religious elders, or ulama. Saudi Arabia had
no written constitution until March 1992, when a series of royal decrees
established a bill of rights, increased the powers of provincial
governments, and provided for a 60-member Consultative Council, to be
appointed by the king. Executive and Legislature The chief government and religious official of Saudi Arabia is a king.
Succession to the office is not hereditary, and the crown prince, who
succeeds the king, is chosen from among the Saud royal family by the
family in consultation with religious and government leaders. The king
usually also serves as Saudi Arabia's prime minister. The royal family
and a few other prominent families provide most higher government
officials. The king's power in practice is determined in part by his
personality and on how he interacts with the leading families and
religious officials of the country. Saudi Arabia has no separate
legislature or political parties. Laws are issued by the king and his
ministers. In 1992 King Fahd established the Shura Council, a body of 60
ministers selected by the king as advisers. The council, however, has no
legislative powers. Judiciary The judicial system of Saudi Arabia is based on the Sharia, which is
derived from the Koran (the holy book of Islam) and the Sunna
(traditions) of the prophet Muhammad. The principal tribunals of the
country are the supreme council of justice, the court of cassation,
general courts, and summary courts. Local Government Saudi Arabia is divided into 14 administrative districts. Large cities
elect their own municipal governments. Towns and villages are governed
by councils of elders. Defense Since the mid-1960s defense expenditures have increased dramatically.
The country maintains two separate armies. The first is the national
guard, or the white guard, which is a conglomeration of tribal levies
organized along traditional lines and has about 57, 000 active members.
The regular armed forces include an army of 68, 000 persons, an air force
of 18, 000, and a navy of 11, 000. These forces, trained in part with U. S.assistance, are equipped with modern weapons and advanced aircraft. History Arabia was probably the original home of the Semites, from where,
beginning in the 4th millennium BC, they moved into Mesopotamia and
Palestine, later to be identified as Assyro-Babylonians, Canaanites, and
Amorites. Ancient Times In the 1st millennium BC the Minaean kingdom was well established in
Asir and the southern Hijaz (Hejaz) along the Red Sea coast; its capital
was at Karna, or Qarnaw (present-day Sadah, Yemen). The Minaeans were
nomads and herders, who eventually became the chief traders of incense
through the northern Hijaz. After the Minaeans withdrew from their
trading post at al-Ula in the 1st century BC, the Nabataeans founded a
commercial center at Medain Salih, just to the north. In the eastern part of the country was Dilmun, apparently a
politicocultural federation centered on the Persian Gulf shore. It has
sometimes been identified with the island of Bahrain, although it
certainly included parts of the mainland and traded with the inland
sections of what is now Saudi Arabia. Alexander the Great of Macedonia had plans to conquer Arabia before his
untimely death in 323 BC, and the Ptolemies of Egypt later gained a
toehold at Yenbo but were thwarted by the Nabataeans. The country was
later subject to Ethiopian and Persian struggles for hegemony. By the
5th century AD Mecca had superseded the Nabataean city of Petra in
importance. Coming of Islam Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, was born in Mecca in 570. His teachings
angered local residents and Muhammad left for Medina. In 630 he returned
with his followers and conquered Mecca, setting into motion the rapid
expansion of Islam across the Middle East. The prophet Muhammad
profoundly changed the history of the country with his founding of Islam
in the 7th century. His successors went on to conquer and convert the
entire Middle East, and as the caliphate was established, first in
Dimashq (Damascus) in 660, and then in Baghdad, Muhammad's homeland
itself became less important within the Islamic empire. After 1269 most
of the Hijaz was under the nominal suzerainty of the Egyptian Mamelukes.
The Ottoman Turks gained control of it when they conquered Egypt in
1517, but they were unable to extend their authority into the interior.
During the 15th century the Saud dynasty was founded near modern-day
Riyadh by Muhammad ibn Saud. Wahhabi Ascendancy In the mid-18th century the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
formed his fundamentalist sect, and, supported by Saudi armies, the
movement soon established a nationalist Arab state in the Najd. In 1802
the Wahhabis captured Mecca, and although they were later expelled from
there (1812), they were not defeated. The Wahabbi and Saudis retreated
to Riyadh, where they founded their capital in 1818. From there the
Saudis reconquered most of the land they had lost. After 1865 the
dynasty fell into civil war and the kingdom was divided among various
clans and the Ottomans. Defeated, the Saudi family fled into exile in
Kuwait. In 1902, Abdul Aziz ibn Saud retook Riyadh and by 1906 his
forces controlled the Nadj region. He captured the Hasa region in 1913,
the Jebel Shammar in 1921, Mecca in 1924, Medina in 1925, and Asir in
1926. He then proclaimed himself king of the Hijaz. In 1932, after
unifying the conquered territories, he renamed his vast realm Saudi
Arabia. Ibn Saud's Reign Before 1938, when large-scale exploitation of Saudi Arabian oil
resources began, socioeconomic conditions in the country differed little
from those prevailing in antiquity. As royalties from the oil industry
increased, King Ibn Saud developed an extensive modernization program,
particularly in such areas as water supply, agriculture, manufacturing,
and public health. Concurrently he strengthened relations with other
states of the Middle East and adopted a friendly policy toward the
United States and Great Britain. A supporter of the Allied cause in
World War II, he permitted construction of a U. S.air base in Dhahran
but remained officially neutral until March 1945, when he declared war
on Germany and Japan. In 1945 Saudi Arabia joined the United Nations and the Arab League. It
opposed the creation of Israel but took only a minor part in the
league's war of 1948-1949 against the Jewish state. In June 1951, Saudi
Arabia agreed to U. S. use of the Dhahran air base for another five years
in return for U. S. technical aid and permission to purchase arms under
the Mutual Defense Assistance Act. In December a new agreement with the
Arabian-American Oil Company (Aramco) provided that 50 percent of the
company's net earnings should be paid to Saudi Arabia. Cold War Period King Ibn Saud died on November 9, 1953. He was succeeded by his eldest
son, Saud. Advocating Arab neutrality in the East-West cold war, Saudi
Arabia opposed the Middle Eastern Treaty Organization (METO), formed in
1955 by Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, and Great Britain. Representatives
from Saudi Arabia attended the Asian-African Conference held April
18-24, 1955, in Bandung, Indonesia. In October 1955 it signed a
mutual-defense pact with Egypt. In the same month British-led forces
from the sultanate of Muscat and Oman (now Oman) recaptured an oasis in
a disputed area that had been occupied in 1952 by Saudi Arabian police.
Saudi Arabia appealed vainly to the United Nations for support against
the British. In November King Saud agreed to lend Syria $10 million for
economic and military purposes. A loan of $10 million was made to Egypt
in August 1956, when Egypt's funds in foreign banks were frozen
following the nationalization of the Suez Canal on July 26. After the
joint Israeli, British, and French attack on Egypt in October and
November, Saudi Arabia severed diplomatic relations with Great Britain
and France and cut off oil supplies to their tankers. King Saud visited the United States in January 1957; shortly afterward
it was announced that the U. S. would sell arms and supply other aid to
Saudi Arabia in exchange for extension of authority to use the Dhahran
air base. Saudi Arabia, in April, declared the Gulf of Aqaba to be
territorial waters and announced that Israeli ships would be denied
passage through the gulf. Despite the declaration, no attempts were made
to interfere with the passage of Israeli ships. In February 1958 Saudi
Arabian territorial waters were extended to 12 mi. In March 1958 King Saud transferred legislative and executive powers,
formerly included among his own absolute powers, to the prime minister,
his brother Crown Prince Faisal, while retaining the right of veto. In
May a royal decree established a cabinet system. Relations with Other Middle Eastern States At a conference held in Baghdad September 10-14, 1960, Saudi Arabia,
Iraq, Iran, Venezuela, and Kuwait founded the Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) to coordinate their policies and help sustain
oil prices. On December 21, Saud reassumed control of the government
from Faisal and made himself prime minister. In October 1962 King Saud again relinquished the premiership to Faisal.
Meanwhile, Saudi relations with Egypt had been deteriorating. Serious
tension developed after the September 1962 revolution in Yemen; Egypt
supported the new republican government, while Saudi Arabia gave refuge
to the overthrown Yemeni imam and pledged to support his efforts to
regain his throne. After royalist attacks against Yemen from Saudi
Arabia, Egyptian planes bombed Saudi towns in November, and Saudi Arabia
severed diplomatic ties with Egypt and mobilized its armed forces on
January 3, 1963. Prince Faisal, who had been consolidating his power and introducing
major social and economic reforms, replaced Saud as king on November 2,
1964. He designated his half brother, Prince Khalid ibn Abdul, as his
successor. Arab-Israeli Conflicts By 1967, as the Arab-Israeli conflict intensified prior to the Six-Day
War, King Faisal expressed full support for Egyptian President Gamal
Abdel Nasser and dispatched 20, 000 troops to Jordan to face Israel. On
June 6 all Saudi Arabian oil exports to Britain and the United States
were suspended, but diplomatic ties were not broken; the oil trade was
resumed after the Arab defeat. An Arab summit conference later in the
year resulted in Egyptian withdrawal from Yemen, and the Saudis extended
large-scale aid to Egypt to compensate for the loss of revenue caused by
the closing of the Suez Canal in the war. King Faisal continued to call
for pan-Islamic action against Israel and, under internal pressures,
criticized alleged U. S.complicity with Israel. He remained unwilling,
however, to articulate a militant anti-Western position, and in 1971
Saudi Arabia and five other Persian Gulf states concluded a 5-year pact
with 23 Western oil companies, including 17 U. S. firms. In July 1970,
Saudi Arabia formally recognized the republican government of Yemen
after seven years of intermittent border fighting. Saudi Arabia sent a small number of troops and weapons (notably
aircraft) to aid the Arab states during the 1973 Yom Kippur War. In the
aftermath of that conflict the government played a leading role in
organizing a short oil boycott against countries that had supported
Israel and in quadrupling the international price of petroleum. The
latter development, and Saudi Arabia's 1974 takeover of controlling
interest in the huge Aramco, greatly increased government revenue, thus
providing funds for a massive economic development plan. Financial Strength and Military Preparedness In March 1975 King Faisal was assassinated by a nephew and was succeeded
by Prince Khalid. Khalid, however, was in poor health and his half
brother, Crown Prince Fahd, became the power behind the throne. The
country remained conservative, and its influence kept OPEC from raising
its prices as much as most member countries wanted. In 1980 it was
announced that the government had taken full control of Aramco's assets
retroactively from January 1976. Many of the petrodollars that poured
into the country were reinvested in the West or spent on arms, but
domestic inflation and a barely manageable pace of development were
continuing problems. Saudi Arabia, still considered a moderating force in the Arab-Israeli
conflict, took a dim view of the conciliatory overtures by Egyptian
president Anwar al-Sadat to Israel in 1977, and after the signing of a
peace treaty between the two countries in 1979, Saudi Arabia cut off
financial aid to Egypt and severed diplomatic relations. The Iranian
revolution that year and the subsequent seizure by fundamentalist Muslim
guerrillas of the Grand Mosque in Mecca jolted the Saudi government,
which afterward placed an increased emphasis on military preparedness
and security. To ensure such security the U. S. in 1981 agreed to sell
several Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) planes to the
Saudis, an arrangement that engendered heavy opposition from Israel and
its U. S. friends, who feared an upset of the military balance in the
Middle East. King Khalid died in June 1982 and was succeeded by Crown
Prince Fahd. In July 1987 at least 400 people were killed in Mecca when
Iranian Shiite pilgrims clashed with Saudi police. More than 1400
pilgrims died in July 1990 after a bridge and tunnel accident caused a
panic. Iraq's takeover of Kuwait in August 1990 had significant military,
political, and economic consequences for Saudi Arabia. To counter the
Iraqi military threat, the government allowed the temporary deployment
on Saudi territory of hundreds of thousands of U. S.and allied troops,
and Saudi forces fought as part of the anti-Iraq coalition in the
Persian Gulf War. Meanwhile, to compensate for the loss of petroleum
supplies from Iraq and Kuwait, Saudi Arabia greatly increased its own
oil output. Political reforms decreed by King Fahd in 1992 established a
consultative council, provided for a bill of rights, and changed the
succession rules. Economic problems became evident in 1993. The United
States had insisted that Saudi Arabia pay for the Persian Gulf War,
costing the country $51 billion. In addition the Saudi economy had
operated with a budget deficit from 1983 to 1993. War payments and the
decline of oil prices in the 1980s forced the Saudi government to cut
social and defense spending and to take out loans from international
banks. Despite its economic problems, Saudi Arabia helped defeat a plan
by Iran to artificially raise the price of oil in March 1994. The
consultative council established by King Fahd in 1992, called the Shura
Council, met for the first time in December 1993. Saudi Arabia continued
to struggle with reactionary religious groups in 1994, stripping a
wealthy Saudi businessman, Ussama Bin Laden, of his citizenship because
he had supported terrorist groups.
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