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Tibet
Education
 Tibet,
provincial-level administrative area of China, in the southwestern part
of the country. Officially Tibet (Chinese Xizang) Autonomous Region, it
is bounded on the north by Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region and Qinghai
Province; on the east by Sichuan and Yunnan provinces; on the south by
Burma, India, Bhutan, and Nepal; and on the west by India. Tibet is the
highest region on earth, having an average elevation of more than 4875 m
(more than 16,000 ft); for this reason it is sometimes called the Roof
of the World. It is also one of the world's most isolated regions,
surrounded on three sides by vast mountain systems, namely the Himalaya
on the south, the Karakorum Range on the west, and the Kunlun Mountains
on the north. Tibet has a total area of about 1,200,000 sq km (about
463,320 sq mi). The capital and largest city of Tibet is Lhasa.
Land and Resources
The southern part of Tibet falls wholly within the Himalaya. Many of the
world's highest summits are situated in the main Himalayan chain,
extending along the entire southern frontier. Among the principal peaks
are Mount Everest (8848 m/29,028 ft), the world's loftiest mountain;
Namzha Parwa (7756 m/25,445 ft); and Gurla Mandhata (7728 m/25,355 ft).
Another Himalayan chain, commonly known as the Trans-Himalaya, lies
parallel to the main chain on the north, and has peaks up to about 7300
m (about 24,000 ft) in elevation. Between this chain and the main chain
is a river valley region, which extends about 1000 km (about 620 mi)
from east to west. The Brahmaputra River (known in Tibet as the Yarlung
Zangbo) flows from west to east through most of this region. The
Trans-Himalaya chain slopes north to the Northern (or Tibetan) Plateau.
This is a vast tableland extending to the Karakorum on the west and the
Kunlun Mountains on the north. The Northern Plateau is broken by
mountain outcroppings and has an average elevation of about 4570 m
(about 15,000 ft). It slopes gradually to the south and east. The
eastern part of Tibet is a rugged region of numerous northern-southern
trending mountain ranges, interspersed with deep valleys.
Rivers and Lakes
Tibet is the principal watershed of Asia and the source of many of the
continent's major rivers. The Brahmaputra is Tibet's most important
river. The Indus, Ganges, and Sutlej rivers have their headwaters in
western Tibet. The Salween River (Nu Jiang) rises in central Tibet, and
headwaters of the Mekong (Lancang Jiang), Yangtze (Chang Jiang), and
Huang He (Huang Ho, or Yellow River) are found in northern Tibet. Many
of Tibet's rivers have great potential for hydroelectric development.
The Northern Plateau is dotted with numerous brackish lakes, including
Ngangla Ringco in the west and Nam Co (Na-mu-ts'o) in the east.
Climate
Tibet has a semiarid climate. The average annual precipitation is only
about 381 mm (about 15 in) and is considerably less in many areas. The
southeast has the heaviest precipitation. Temperatures in the mountains
and plateaus are generally cold, and strong winds are a common
year-round feature. The most equable climates are found in the river
valleys. The average annual temperature is about 1.1° C (about 34° F);
sudden drops in temperature after sunset are characteristic.
Vegetation and Animal Life
Vegetation on the Northern Plateau is extremely sparse, consisting for
the most part of grasses and shrubs. Scattered wooded areas occur in the
extreme west and east. In the main, however, the flora of Tibet is
concentrated in the valleys on the Brahmaputra, Indus, and Sutlej. These
areas support several species of trees, including conifers and oak,
cypress, poplar, and maple. Apple, peach, pear, and apricot trees are
cultivated in the river valleys.
Wildlife in Tibet is diversified. Musk deer, wild sheep, wild goat, wild
ass, yak, and Tibetan antelope are common in mountainous areas. Other
large mammals found are the leopard, tiger, several kinds of bear, wolf,
fox, and monkey. Birdlife includes bar-headed goose, gull, teal, and
other species of waterfowl, as well as pheasant and sand grouse.
Mineral Resources
Tibet is rich in mineral resources, only a few of which have been
exploited. Gold occurs in many areas, and significant deposits of iron
ore, coal, salt, and borax are also present. Other known mineral
resources include oil shale, manganese, lead, zinc, quartz, and
graphite. Jade, lapis lazuli, and other precious and semiprecious stones
are also found.
Population
The Tibetan people form a majority of the population; Chinese, however,
form a sizable minority. Tibetan, one of the Sino-Tibetan languages, is
the principal language. Before Tibet became part of China, Lamaism—a
form of Buddhism—was the religion of the overwhelming majority of the
population. Practice of the religion has since been severely restricted.
A significant part of the population is nomadic or seminomadic.
The population of Tibet, according to the 1990 census, is 2,196,010.
Tibet has the lowest population density of any region of China. The only
important city is Lhasa. The other major town is Xigazę (Jih-k'a-tse).
Economy
Economic activity in Tibet remains dominated by subsistence agriculture.
Livestock raising is the primary occupation of the Northern Plateau. In
addition to sheep, cattle, and goats, the herds include camels, yaks,
horses, and other beasts of burden. Arable land is limited in area,
concentrated mostly in the river valleys. The principal crops are
barley, wheat, buckwheat, rye, potatoes, and various vegetables and
fruits. Cotton, soybeans, and hemp are grown as commercial crops. Some
coal is mined. Manufacturing has expanded but remains limited to a
relatively few small-scale enterprises. Textiles and electrical
equipment are among the manufactures.
Tibet has no railroads, but the road system, which was almost
nonexistent before 1950, has expanded considerably. A trans-Tibetan
highway runs from west to east. Other highways connect the region with
Xinjiang and Qinghai on the north, with Sichuan on the east, and with
Nepal and India on the south. The most important of the several airports
is at Lhasa.
History
Before the 7th century AD, when Buddhism was introduced into Tibet, the
history of the region is legendary and obscure. Buddhist missionaries
developed an alphabet for the Tibetan language, initiated translations
of the Buddhist sacred books, and conducted a relentless struggle
against shamanism, the indigenous religion. In the period of Buddhist
penetration, which led to the development of Lamaism and a powerful
Lamaist hierarchy, Tibet was a strong kingdom. Toward the close of the
10th century the kingdom began to disintegrate, eventually splitting
into a number of petty principalities. The Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan
incorporated the area into his empire in 1206. In 1270 political power
was bestowed on the head of the Lamaist hierarchy.
Chinese Sovereignty
The Chinese Empire acquired sovereignty over Tibet in the 17th century
but in the course of the following two centuries Chinese authority
steadily diminished. Meanwhile, British colonial officials in India,
initially Warren Hastings, attempted to secure a foothold in the region.
These efforts were fruitless, mainly because of Tibetan resentment over
a Nepalese invasion in 1790, which the British supported. In 1904 Tibet,
then virtually independent of Chinese authority, was invaded by the
British, who were alarmed over purported Russian influence in the
country. The expedition laid the foundations for an Anglo-Chinese
convention of 1906. By the terms of this agreement, the Chinese Empire
acquired recognition as the sovereign power in Tibet. The agreement also
provided for the payment of a large indemnity to the British, who
subsequently withdrew their troops. In 1907 the British and Russian
governments concluded an agreement pledging noninterference in Tibetan
affairs.
Nominal Independence
Tibet attained nominal independence from China following the
revolutionary overthrow of the Manchu dynasty in 1912. All Chinese
officials and troops were expelled from the country by 1913. In 1914, at
a conference held at Simla of representatives of the British, Chinese,
and Tibetan governments, tentative agreement was reached on a convention
regulating mutual relations and, specifically, boundaries. Among other
things the convention provided for an autonomous Tibet and for Chinese
sovereignty in the region called Inner Tibet, which is contiguous to
China proper. The Chinese government subsequently repudiated the
convention, which was signed by Great Britain in July 1914. In 1918 the
strained relations between Tibet and China culminated in armed conflict.
A truce was arranged, with British help, in September of that year.
Subsequent efforts to conciliate the dispute were unsuccessful.
Reincorporation into China
In October 1950, little more than a year after the Communists gained
full control of mainland China, their troops invaded Tibet. To rally the
nation against the advancing invasion force, the regency in November
invested the 14th Dalai Lama, although he was only 15 years old at the
time, with full authority. The Tibetan government capitulated in May
1951, however, signing a treaty that provided for the maintenance of the
power of the Dalai Lama in domestic affairs, for Chinese control of
Tibetan foreign and military affairs, and for the return from China of
the Lamaist spiritual leader, the Panchen Lama, reputedly a partisan of
the Communist regime. Communist military units reached Lhasa in October.
The Panchen Lama arrived there in April 1952.
Chinese Activities
During 1952 the Chinese, accelerating a program to improve
communications, completed airfields in various parts of Tibet and
continued the construction of military highways. A purge of
anti-Communists was reportedly carried out early in 1953. The following
year India recognized Tibet as part of China and withdrew the garrisons
it maintained at two Tibetan frontier trading posts. The Dalai Lama was
subsequently elected a vice president of the National People's Congress,
the Chinese legislative body. Under terms of an agreement signed in
April 1955, India relinquished to China its control of the Tibetan
telephone, telegraph, and postal systems. A committee was established in
1956 to prepare a constitution for Tibet; the Dalai Lama was named
chairman and the Panchen Lama first vice chairman.
Tibetan Revolt
In 1956 Indian and Nepalese sources reported Tibetan uprisings and
guerrilla activity against the Chinese regime. Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung)
declared a few months later that Tibet was not yet ready for the
establishment of a Communist regime. In the latter half of 1958
widespread anti-Communist guerrilla activity was reported in eastern
Tibet. It was believed that the rebellion was provoked by attempts to
institute so-called people's communes, similar to those established in
other parts of China, in which people labored under quasi-military
discipline in order to increase production. Although the Chinese
announced that the establishment of the communes in Tibet had been
postponed, the rebellion was not contained, and in March 1959 it flared
into a full-scale revolt in Lhasa. The Dalai Lama fled to India at the
end of the month and subsequently established a community of Tibetans
there. The Chinese then crushed the revolt and made the Panchen Lama
head of state. On October 21 the United Nations General Assembly
approved a resolution deploring the suppression of human rights in
Tibet. A similar resolution was also passed on March 9, 1961.
Present Status
Of the tens of thousands of Tibetans who fled abroad after the Chinese
invasion, most settled in India, while most of the others took refuge in
the Himalayan kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan. In 1965 Tibet was formally
established as an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China,
and Beijing announced that the region would undergo steady socialist
transformation. The Panchen Lama, who had been removed from his post in
1964, was readmitted to the regime in 1978. He repeatedly appealed to
the Dalai Lama to return. The Chinese in 1980 admitted that Tibet had
been misgoverned and announced reforms for the region. Violent
demonstrations protesting Chinese rule occurred in October 1987 and May
1993. In August 1993, for the first time in a decade, talks were held
between the Chinese and representatives of the Dalai Lama.
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