Ghana Education

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Education
Six years of primary education and three years of secondary education are free and compulsory in Ghana. In the mid-1980s some 1.6 million pupils were attending about 9180 elementary schools annually, and about 5700 secondary schools had an enrollment of about 768,300. More than 130 vocational and teacher-training institutions had over 40,000 students. Higher education is provided by the University of Ghana (1948), in Accra; the University of Science and Technology (1951), in Kumasi; and the University of Cape Coast (1962). Total university enrollment was about 8000.

Ghana, country, western Africa, bounded on the north and northwest by Burkina Faso, on the east by Togo, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by Cote d'Ivoire. Formerly a British colony known as the Gold Coast, Ghana was the first black nation in sub-Saharan Africa to achieve (1957) independence. The country is named for the ancient empire of Ghana, from which the ancestors of the inhabitants of the present country are thought to have migrated. The total area is 238,537 sq km (92,100 sq mi).

Land and Resources
Ghana is a lowland country, except for a range of hills on the eastern border. The sandy coastline is backed by a coastal plain that is crossed by several rivers and streams, generally navigable only by canoe. In the west the terrain is broken by heavily forested hills and many streams and rivers. To the north lies an undulating savanna country that is drained by the Black and White Volta rivers, which join to form the Volta, which then flows south to the sea through a narrow gap in the hills. Lake Volta, in the east, is one of the largest artificial lakes in the world. No natural harbors exist. Ghana's highest point, in the eastern hills, is about 884 m (about 2900 ft) above sea level.

Climate
The climate of Ghana is tropical, but temperatures vary with season and elevation. Except in the north two rainy seasons occur, from April to June and from September to November. In the north the rainy season begins in March and lasts until September. Annual rainfall ranges from about 1015 mm (about 40 in) in the north to about 2030 mm (about 80 in) in the southeast. The harmattan, a dry desert wind, blows from the northeast from December to March, lowering the humidity and creating hot days and cool nights in the north. In the south the effects of the harmattan are felt in January. In most areas the highest temperatures occur in March, the lowest in August. The average annual temperature is about 26.1° C (about 79° F).

Plants and Animals
Much of the natural vegetation of Ghana has been destroyed by land clearing for agriculture, but such trees as the giant silk cotton, African mahogany, and cedar are still prevalent in the tropical forest zone of the south. The northern two-thirds of the country is covered by savanna—a grassland with scattered trees. Animal life has also been depleted, especially in the south, but it remains relatively diverse and includes leopard, hyena, lemur, buffalo, elephant, wildhog, antelope, and monkey. Many species of reptiles are found, including the cobra, python, puff adder, and horned adder.

Natural Resources
The chief mineral resources of Ghana include gold, silver, iron, manganese ore, bauxite, and diamonds. Forest resources are significant, and the offshore waters are rich in fish. Minor resources include petroleum, natural gas, beryl, tantalite-columbite, and chromite.

Energy
The first stage of the Volta River hydroelectric project, the Volta Dam at Akosombo, was completed in 1966. Construction on a second hydroelectric dam downstream was begun in the late 1970s. Total production of electricity in Ghana in the late 1980s was approximately 4.8 billion kwh annually; almost all the power was generated in hydroelectric facilities.

Population
The population of Ghana is divided into more than 50 ethnic groups. The majority of the people are agricultural workers who live on farms or in small villages.

Population Characteristics
The population of Ghana (1984 preliminary) was 12,205,574; the estimated population in 1993 was 16,699,105, giving the country an overall population density of about 70 persons per sq km (about 181 per sq mi). The most densely populated parts of the country are the coastal areas, the Ashanti region in the south central part of the country, and the two principal cities, Accra and Kumasi. Seventy percent of the total population lives in the southern half of the country. The most numerous of the coastal peoples are the Fanti, who belong to the Akan family, and the Ashanti, who live in central Ghana. The Nzima and the Ahanta live in the southwest. The Accra plains are inhabited by the Ga. Most of the inhabitants in the northern region belong to the Moshi-Dagomba group of Volta peoples or to the Gonja group.

Political Divisions
Ghana is divided into ten administrative regions: Northern, Eastern, Western, Central, Upper East, Upper West, Volta, Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, and Greater Accra.

Principal Cities
Accra, the capital, had a population (1984) of 964,879. Kumasi (348,880) is the capital of the Ashanti region. Sekondi-Takoradi (93,882) has an artificial harbor; it is the first modern port built in Ghana. Other major cities include Tamale (136,828), Tema (99,608), and Cape Coast (57,700).

Language and Religion
English is the official language of Ghana and is universally used in schools, but in 1962 the government selected nine Ghanaian languages, in addition to English and French, for use in educational institutions: Akuapem-Twi, Asante-Twi, Dagbani, Dangbe, Ewe, Fanti, Ga, Kasem, and Nizima.
Traditional religions, adhered to by more than one-fifth of the population, generally involve some form of animism. The Christian population, which accounts for about three-fifths of the total population and includes Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Methodists, and Presbyterians, is concentrated in the coastal region. The Muslim population (about 16% of the total) is located chiefly in the northern part of the country.

Economy
The economy of Ghana is based on the production of a few primary agricultural and mineral products. Despite sustained economic growth since the mid-1980s, Ghana remains one of the world's poorest countries, with a per capita income of about $400 annually. The estimated national budget in the late 1980s showed revenues of about $766.3 million and expenditures of about $737.5 million.

Agriculture
The most important export crop of Ghana is cacao, which is produced chiefly in the Ashanti region. In the late 1980s Ghana produced about 290,000 metric tons annually. Production is in the hands of small-scale farmers. Other major export commodities are coffee, palm kernels, shea nuts, coconut oil, copra, bananas, peanuts, kola nuts, palm oil, and tobacco. Plantings of rubber have been introduced in the southwest. The government has initiated programs to promote the improvement of cacao cultivation and of other cash crops.
The most important agricultural products in the south are cassava, palm kernels, palm oil, corn, plantain, peanuts, and yams. Other crops include oil nuts, cotton, tobacco, and rice. The shea tree, which bears seeds yielding an edible solid fat called shea butter, is widely distributed in the north, where yams, durra, millet, and corn also are grown. Peanuts and cowpeas are grown in the northeast. Coconuts, coffee, bananas, and citrus fruits are grown along the coast. Cattle, totaling approximately 1.3 million in the late 1980s, are raised principally in the north. Other livestock include 3 million goats, 2.5 million sheep, and 12 million chickens.

Forestry and Fishing
Forests cover about 36% of Ghana's land area. Forest reserves are controlled under the 1959 Timber Lands Act to ensure that a given timber area has been fully exploited before the area is cleared for agricultural use. Through this act and by increasing the reservation and afforestation hectarage, the government is attempting to counteract the deforestation caused by farming. Most of the timber production is from areas outside the forest reserves, although production from reserves is increasing. In the late 1980s roundwood production totaled about 9.9 million cu m (about 350 million cu ft) annually.
The fishing industry has grown rapidly since the 1960s. In the late 1980s the annual catch was about 371,800 metric tons, about 10% of which came from inland waters (mainly Lake Volta). Fish markets with cold-storage facilities exist at Sekondi-Takoradi and at Tema.

Mining
In the late 1980s annual gold production was about 11,600 kg. About 230,900 metric tons of manganese and 287,300 metric tons of bauxite also were produced. Production of diamonds was about 215,900 metric carats, mostly of industrial quality.

Manufacturing
Ghana has, compared to other African countries, a relatively well-developed industrial sector. Manufacturing establishments are generally small, however. Printing and publishing plants are numerous, and the country has a number of sawmills and furniture-producing establishments. Large-scale operations are found mainly in those industries producing beer, cigarettes, soft drinks, edible oils, nails, oxygen and acetylene, and sheet aluminum. The industrial base at Tema, a port city east of Accra, includes an oil refinery. A large aluminum smelter, which utilizes energy generated by the Volta River Project, produced about 47,500 metric tons of metal per year in the mid-1980s. Other manufactures include textiles, footwear, iron and steel, sugar, flour, and glass.

Currency and Banking
The Bank of Ghana (established 1957) is the country's central bank and issues the national currency. Since 1967 the currency unit has been the cedi, divided into 100 pesewas (783.677 new cedis equal U.S. $1; 1990). The National Investment Bank makes development loans to private business and public corporations.

Foreign Trade and Labor
Generally, the annual balance of trade has shown a deficit since independence. In the late 1980s annual imports to Ghana were valued at about $952 million and exports at about $827 million. Great Britain is Ghana's leading trade partner.
Nearly 60% of Ghana's labor force is engaged in agriculture. Manufacturing employs 11% and services 29%. The minister of labor certifies unions for collective bargaining. Uncertified trade unions may not strike. Public service, municipal, and local government employees are forbidden to strike and are not entitled to arbitration.

Transportation
In the late 1980s Ghana was served by 953 km (592 mi) of railroads. The main line forms a rough triangle, connecting Sekondi-Takoradi, Accra, and Kumasi.
The country has about 28,300 km (about 17,600 mi) of roads, of which about 20% are paved. Motor vehicles in use in the mid-1980s totaled about 76,200. The country's two major ports, Tema and Sekondi-Takoradi, are both artificial.
Five major airports, located at Kotoka (near Accra), Sekondi-Takoradi, Kumasi, Sunyani, and Tamale, serve the country, with additional airstrips for internal flights. International airlines have regular flights to Accra. Ghana Airways provides domestic and international service.

Communications
Radio, television, telegraph, and telephone services are owned and operated by the government of Ghana. Radio programs are broadcast in English and African languages. Programs in English and French are beamed to other parts of Africa as part of an international radio service. A television service was established in 1965. An estimated 2.9 million radios and 175,000 television receivers were in use in the late 1980s.

Government
A military council ruled Ghana by decree from 1972 until 1979, when a constitution providing for a popularly elected president was adopted. This constitution also provided for a directly elected parliament and for an independent judiciary headed by a supreme court. After a coup d'état on December 31, 1981, the 1979 constitution was suspended. The Provisional National Defense Council, led by a chairman, then ruled Ghana until 1992, when a new constitution was approved by popular referendum. This constitution established Ghana as a multiparty republic with a president elected by universal suffrage to a four-year term. It also provided for an elected legislature and for a prime minister to be chosen by the president from among the members of parliament.

History
The earliest known states in what is now Ghana were the Dogomba and Mamprussi kingdoms in the north, which flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries. About that time groups of Akan speakers—among them the Ashanti and the Fanti—migrated from the savanna and established their predominance below the forest line, forming a series of small states. By the early 15th century these communities carried on a lively trade with the sub-Saharan peoples to the north.
The first Europeans to visit the region, subsequently called the Gold Coast, were Portuguese explorers. In 1482 they established a trading settlement on the site of present-day Elmina. The region became a major supplier of gold to Europe. In addition, the developing slave trade during the 16th century whetted the interest of several European nations. By 1642 the Dutch had forced the Portuguese out. The ocean-directed European trade aided the ascendancy of the Ashanti, who had gradually moved and settled at the junction of trade routes around Kumasi that enabled them to dominate commerce both north and south. By 1670 their supremacy in the Kumasi area was unchallenged, and further expansion left the Ashanti Empire unquestionably predominant among the native states by the middle of the 18th century.

British Dominance
Among the European invaders who soon challenged the Dutch were the British, who established forts at Kormantine and Cape Coast. The ensuing rivalry between the two powers culminated in war, from which the Dutch emerged victorious. Government-sponsored British companies, however, continued to pursue their interest, developing by 1750 a flourishing slave trade. Forts were also established by the Danes at Christiansborg and elsewhere, but by the end of the 18th century the British dominated the region. In 1821, 14 years after the abolition of the slave trade, the British settlements were taken over by the Crown. The British purchased the Danish forts in 1850, and in 1871 the Dutch settlements were also transferred to them. The coastal area, by then entirely under British control, was designated a crown colony in 1874.
In the early 19th century Ashanti tribes had invaded the coastal territory inhabited by the Fanti, thereby posing a threat to British forts. This led to a series of Ashanti-British wars that continued sporadically until the end of the century. The boundaries of the colony were established in 1901; at the same time the Ashanti and the northern territories were annexed to the colony. Part of the German Togoland was added in 1922. Three years later the first elections for a legislative council were held.
Rapid political development, however, began only after World War II, when the British, faced with sustained agitation for national independence, allowed increasing measures of self-government, with the object of gradually establishing an independent country. Accordingly, the British Parliament in January 1957 passed the Ghana Independence Act, and on March 6 of that year the National Assembly of Ghana issued an independence proclamation. Two days later it joined the United Nations.

The Nkrumah Years
The dominant political party of the new nation was the Convention People's party (CPP), headed by Kwame Nkrumah, who was the country's first prime minister. There was, however, marked dissension between the CPP and various disaffected political groups. A prime source of resentment was Nkrumah's desire to create a centralized rather than a federated state. The government retaliated harshly against its critics, and in October 1957 six opposition groups formed a coalition known as the United party.
The Ghana Constitutional Amendment Bill of 1958 made it possible for the National Assembly to alter the constitution by a simple majority. A new republican constitution was drafted early in 1960 and approved by the electorate. At the same time, Prime Minister Nkrumah was elected the first president. The country was proclaimed a republic on July 1, 1960.
During the following years Nkrumah became increasingly dictatorial. The opposition was severely limited in its freedom of action, leaders of the United party were imprisoned without trial, and defamation of Nkrumah was made a crime. The government decreed a state of emergency in 1961 and again in 1962. In late 1963 Nkrumah began to limit the freedom of the judiciary. A one-party system was introduced in 1964.

Political Instability
On February 24, 1966, Nkrumah, who was on a state visit to China, was ousted in a military coup. He took refuge in Guinea, but his supporters in Ghana were arrested, and Soviet and Chinese technicians, whom Nkrumah had brought in, were expelled from the country. For the next three years Ghana was ruled by a National Liberation Council. In 1969 power was transferred, under a new constitution, to a civilian government headed by Kofi A. Busia. Busia, however, was ousted by another army coup in 1972, this one headed by Colonel Ignatius K. Acheampong. Acheampong suspended the constitution, banned political activity, and curbed freedom of the press and union activities. Military control was relaxed slightly in 1974, and a civilian political affairs advisory council and an economic planning council were set up. Acheampong, however, was forced to resign in 1978, giving way to General Frederick W. Akuffo, who ruled for less than a year before he was overthrown by Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings. Dedicated to uprooting corruption, Rawlings had both Acheampong and Akuffo executed for that offense. In September 1979 Rawlings stepped down in favor of an elected civilian president, Hilla Limann. When economic conditions worsened, Limann was deposed in a second coup led by Rawlings on December 31, 1981. Ruling as chief of the Provisional National Defense Council, Rawlings imposed an austerity plan that helped control inflation and attract financial aid from the West, including support from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The currency was devalued three times in the 1980s. Agricultural production increased, and Rawlings successfully rescheduled Ghana's most pressing loans. Despite his popularity with the masses, however, Rawlings's regime had to suppress many coup attempts during the decade. A referendum in April 1992 reestablished constitutional government, and Rawlings, running as a civilian, won the presidency in multiparty elections in November.

 

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