Tunisia
Education
Education
Education
in Tunisia is free, and virtually all eligible children attend primary
school. Instruction is conducted mainly in Arabic, although French is
also used, especially at the college and university levels. In the late
1980s primary schools had a total enrollment of about 1.3 million
pupils, and secondary, technical, and vocational schools, about 452,000.
In the same period more than 54,000 students were enrolled in
institutions of higher education, primarily three divisions of the
University of Tunis (1958).
Tunisia,
republic of northern Africa, bounded on the north and east by the
Mediterranean Sea, on the south by Libya, and on the west by Algeria.
The total area is 163,610 sq km (63,170 sq mi).
Land and Resources
Tunisia's Mediterranean coast is indented by many harbors and inlets,
notably the gulfs of Tunis, Hammamet, and Gabes. The Gulf of Gabès
contains the islands of Jarbah (Djerba) and Qarqannah (Kerkennah). The
total length of coastline is about 1200 km (about 750 mi).
Physiographic Regions
Tunisia may be divided, from north to south, into four main topographic
regions. In the north, low-lying spurs of the Maritime Atlas Mountains
traverse the country in a southwestern to northeastern direction. Peaks
range in elevation from about 610 to 1520 m (about 2000 to 5000 ft).
Fertile valleys and plains are interspersed among the mountains of this
region. The country's only major river, the Majardah, crosses the region
from west to east, emptying into the Gulf of Tunis. To the south the
mountains give way to a plateau that averages about 610 m (about 2000
ft) in elevation. Farther south, the plateau descends gradually to a
chain of low-lying salt lakes, known as shatts, or chotts, which extend
east to west across the country. Several of these lakes lie below sea
level. On the south the shatts adjoin the Sahara, which constitutes
about 40% of Tunisia's land area.
Climate
In general, a mild Mediterranean climate prevails in the north of
Tunisia; toward the south the climate becomes progressively hotter and
drier. In the north, temperatures average 10.6° C (51° F) in January and
26.1° C (79° F) in July. The northern regions have a rainy season that
lasts from October to May. Average annual rainfall is about 610 mm
(about 24 in) but may vary greatly from year to year. Annual rainfall
decreases to the south and is only about 178 mm (about 7 in) in the
Sahara.
Vegetation and Animal Life
The plant life of Tunisia, particularly that found in the coastal
region, is similar to that of southern Europe. The fertile, well-watered
regions of the north are characterized by flourishing vineyards and by
dense forests of cork oak, pine, and juniper trees. Farther south, the
semiarid conditions support a steppe vegetation dominated by wild
grasses, notably esparto grass, and a wide variety of shrubs. In the
arid regions of the extreme south, date palms flourish in oases. Among
the wildlife found in the country are hyena, wild boar, jackal, gazelle,
and hare. Several varieties of poisonous snakes, including cobras and
horned vipers, are also present.
Mineral Resources
Petroleum is Tunisia's principal mineral resource. Reserves exist both
offshore and on land, particularly in the south, and important new
deposits were discovered in the early 1980s. Other mineral resources
include natural gas, phosphates, iron ore, lead, and zinc.
Population
Throughout history, many peoples, including Romans, Vandals, black
Africans, and Arabs, have invaded or settled in the region that is now
Tunisia. Tunisians, however, are essentially of Berber stock, although
fewer than 2 percent speak the Berber language. As a result of
Arabization, Arabic has become the language of the Tunisian people, who
have come to regard themselves as Arabs.
Population Characteristics
The population of Tunisia (1984) was 6,966,173. The estimated population
(1993) was 8,570,868, yielding an average population density of 49
persons per sq km (126 per sq mi). About three-quarters of the
population lived in the coastal region. The arid central and southern
parts make up 70 percent of the total land area, but contain less than
30 percent of the population.
Principal Cities
The capital and largest city of Tunisia is the seaport of Tunis, with a
population (1990) of 1 million. Other important cities include Sfax, or
Safaqis (500,000); Sousse, or Susah (83,509); and Bizerte (94,509).
Language and Religion
Arabic is the official language of Tunisia, but French is used widely,
particularly by the educated. Islam is the state religion and is adhered
to by more than 95 percent of the population; virtually all Muslims in
Tunisia belong to the Sunni branch. There are small numbers of Roman
Catholics, Jews, Greek Orthodox, and Protestants.
Cultural Institutions
Tunisia has three major libraries, all headquartered in Tunis. The
National Library has a collection of more than 700,000 volumes. The
Musée National du Bardo, founded in 1888 in Tunis, has collections of
Punic, Greek, Roman, and Islamic art. Tunis also has a state-supported
municipal theater, but much theater activity takes place at the
International Cultural Center at al-Hammamat. The Carthage Festival, an
international arts festival, is held annually at the site of the ancient
city.
Communications
The Tunisian press includes five dailies with a combined daily
circulation of 230,000 and more than three dozen other periodicals. Both
radio and television broadcasting are under government operation. In the
late 1980s the number of radio receivers was about 1.7 million, and the
number of television sets was about 500,000. The number of telephones in
the same period exceeded 312,000.
Government
According to the constitution of 1959 Tunisia is a free, independent,
and sovereign republic.
Executive
National executive power in Tunisia is exercised by the president, who
is head of state and commander in chief of the army, and who also
appoints a council of ministers, headed by a prime minister, which is
responsible to the president. The constitution specifies that the
president is to be popularly elected to a 5-year term; in 1975, however,
the National Assembly proclaimed President Habib Bourguiba president for
life. Bourguiba held office until his ouster in November 1987.
Legislature
Legislative power in Tunisia is vested in the unicameral National
Assembly, which comprises 141 members popularly elected to 5-year terms.
The National Assembly holds two sessions a year, each lasting not more
than three months.
Judiciary
Religious tribunals in Tunisia have been abolished and their functions
absorbed by the civil courts. The court of cassation, located in Tunis,
has one criminal and three civil sections. At the next level are 3
courts of appeals—at Tunis, Sousse (Susah), and Sfax (Safaqis)—and below
them 13 courts of the first instance. At the lowest level are cantonal
justices in 51 local districts.
Local Government
For administrative purposes, Tunisia is divided into 23 governorates,
each headed by a governor who is appointed by the president.
Political Parties
The principal political party is the Democratic Constitutional Assembly
(RCD; formerly the Destour Socialist party), a moderate left-wing
organization. The party permeates all aspects of political, social, and
economic life in Tunisia. Other parties include the Movement of Social
Democrats, the Movement of Popular Unity, the Popular Unity party, and
the Tunisian Communist party.
Social Services
In the late 1980s Tunisia had about 3500 physicians and 15,800 hospital
beds. Free health care is available to a majority of the population. A
system of social security, begun in 1950, provides maternity, health,
and old-age benefits.
Defense
In the late 1980s the armed forces of Tunisia comprised an army of about
30,000 persons, a navy of 4500, and an air force of 3500.
Economy
The Tunisian economy is dominated by agriculture and mining. Tourism is
also important, and manufacturing is expanding. In the late 1980s the
estimated annual national budget showed $3.1 billion in revenue, $2.4
billion in current spending, and $1 billion in capital spending.
Labor
Of the economically active Tunisian population, about 27 percent work in
agriculture and fishing, 40 percent in industry, and 33 percent in
services. Unemployment and underemployment are chronic national
problems. The major trade organization, the General Union of Tunisian
Workers, has about 175,000 members in 23 affiliated unions.
Agriculture
Annual agricultural yields in Tunisia fluctuate because of the frequency
of drought and the lack of extensive water resources for irrigation. The
leading crops in the fertile plains of the north include wheat, of which
an estimated 225,000 metric tons were produced in 1988, barley (63,000),
tomatoes (370,000), vegetables and melons (1.3 million), and grapes
(130,000). On the Cap Bon Peninsula, the growing of oranges (120,000) is
particularly important. Among other major crops are olives (320,000),
grown in the semiarid central regions, and dates (40,000), grown in
oases in the Sahara region. About half the productive land is used for
grazing, and, because of drought, the livestock industry is also subject
to fluctuations. In 1988 the country's livestock included about 5.9
million sheep, 1.1 million goats, 612,000 cattle, 184,000 camels, 56,000
horses, and 17 million poultry.
Fishing
A growing fishing industry exists along the coast of Tunisia. In the
late 1980s the annual catch stood at nearly 100,000 metric tons. The
catch includes sardines, pilchards, tuna, and whitefish.
Mining
Although not as rich in petroleum as its neighbors, Libya and Algeria,
Tunisia does have several substantial deposits. Annual production of
crude oil in the late 1980s totaled 38.4 million barrels. The country is
also a major world producer of phosphates (6 million metric tons). Other
mining products include natural gas (367 million cu m/13 billion cu ft),
iron ore (325,200 metric tons), lead (3500), zinc (16,300), and salt
(422,000).
Manufacturing
The Tunisian government has encouraged the development of
export-oriented industries. Major industries include a sugar refinery at
Bajah (Béja), a petroleum refinery at Bizerte, a steel plant at Menzel
Bourguiba, and phosphate-processing and cement-making plants. Other
manufactures are sulfuric acid, textiles, forest products, and processed
agricultural and fishing products.
Energy
In the late 1980s the electricity-generating facilities of Tunisia had
an installed capacity of 1.4 million kw and generated 4.5 billion kwh of
electricity a year. Almost all of the country's electricity is generated
in thermal plants.
Transportation
Tunisia has a road network of about 27,370 km (about 17,010 mi)
connecting important commercial centers; about 57 percent of the roads
are paved. The country is also served by about 2115 km (about 1315 mi)
of railroad track. Tunisia has four major ports—Tunis, Bizerte, Sousse,
and Sfax. A fifth port, as-Sukhayrah, specializes in petroleum
bunkering. A modern port is also being constructed at Qabis. The country
has five international airports, two of which serve Tunis.
Currency and Banking
The unit of currency is the dinar, subdivided into 1000 millimes (0.9931
dinar equals U.S.$1; 1993). Currency is issued by the Central Bank of
Tunisia (founded 1958).
Foreign Trade
The annual foreign trade of Tunisia usually shows a deficit. In the late
1980s annual exports totaled $2.4 billion and imports totaled $3.5
billion. The principal exports included petroleum, clothing, fodder,
olive oil, and phosphates. Other important exports included wine, citrus
fruits, iron and steel, and lead. Among the leading imports were
machinery, petroleum products, iron and steel, electric machinery, and
food. Tunisia's principal trading partners were France, Italy, Germany,
Spain, Belgium, Algeria, and the United States.
Tourism
Tourism is an important source of foreign exchange in Tunisia, and the
government has done much to expand and improve the country's tourist
facilities. In the late 1980s more than 3.4 million visitors generated
more than $670 million annually for the Tunisian economy. Among the
country's attractions are its fine beaches and its archaeological sites,
including the site of the ancient city of Carthage.
History
In the earliest known period of its history, the region now called
Tunisia was part of the Carthaginian Empire (see CARTHAGE). According to
tradition, Phoenician traders founded the city of Carthage in 814 BC at
a location slightly northeast of the site of modern Tunis. In subsequent
centuries Carthage became the center of a mighty empire that dominated
most of northern Africa and intermittently ruled the southern part of
the Iberian Peninsula, Sardinia, and parts of Sicily. Beginning in 264
BC Carthage clashed with the expanding Roman Empire in a series of
bloody struggles known as the Punic Wars. In the last of these, the
Third Punic War (149-146 BC), Rome defeated the Carthaginians and
completely destroyed their capital. From the 2nd century BC to the 5th
century AD most of the region now constituting Tunisia was part of the
Roman province called Africa.
During the 5th century the Teutonic tribe known as the Vandals moved
south through the Iberian Peninsula, crossed the Mediterranean, and
wrested the province from Roman control. After a century of Vandal rule,
from about 430 to 534, the region was reconquered for Rome by the
Byzantine general Belisarius.
Arab, Spanish, and Turkish Rule
The region was overrun by Arab adherents of Islam in the 7th century.
The Arab conquerors ruled from the late 7th to the early 16th century.
During that period they replaced the Roman-Christian culture with a
Muslim way of life. During the Muslim era a succession of dynasties
wielded power, notably the Aghlabites (800-909), the Fatimids (909-73),
and the Zeirids (10th century). In the latter part of the 12th century
the Normans, led by the Sicilian ruler Roger II, briefly occupied a
number of important coastal points. The Arabs recovered the region later
in the century, and the Arab Almohad (12th century) and Hafsite
(1228-1574) dynasties succeeded to power.
Arab political supremacy came to an end in the early 15th century.
During the period of Arab domination the region had come to be known as
Tunis, or Tunisia, from its chief city. In 1534 the Mediterranean pirate
Barbarossa II (Khayr ad-Din, 1483?-1546), captured the city of Tunis. He
was expelled by Spanish imperial forces in the following years. Spanish
dominance in Tunisia was short-lived, however. In 1574 armies of the
Ottoman Empire defeated the Spanish and assumed hegemony over Tunisia.
Under the Ottoman Turks, Tunisia enjoyed a period of relative stability
from 1574 to 1881. Imperial rule was effected through native
administrators, who were known as deys of Tunis until 1705 and as beys
thereafter. The first bey, al-Husayn ibn Ali (reigned 1705-40), founded
the Husaynid dynasty. Husaynid rule secured for Tunisia a limited degree
of autonomy and a large measure of prosperity.
An End to Piracy
Piracy, long a major Tunisian enterprise, continued to flourish under
Husaynid auspices. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries a number of
maritime nations, among which were the American colonies, paid regular
bribes to the Tunisian government as insurance against raids on their
Mediterranean shipping. Between 1801 and 1805 and in 1815 the U.S. Navy
curbed Mediterranean piracy by attacking Tunis and other corsair bases
along the so-called Barbary Coast of northern Africa.
As a result of the loss of its revenues from piracy the Tunisian
government was plunged deeply into debt. The financial crisis was made
especially acute by the unrestrained personal extravagances of the beys
and by the necessity for frequent, costly government reprisals against
rebel uprisings. The chief creditors of Tunisia were France, Italy, and
Great Britain, all of which had imperialistic ambitions in northern
Africa. In 1830 France conquered and annexed Algeria. At the Congress of
Berlin in 1878, France agreed to abandon any claim to the Mediterranean
island of Cyprus in return for a similar assurance by Great Britain in
regard to Tunisia. A French army entered Tunisia from Algeria in 1881,
ostensibly to subdue unruly tribesmen. In a series of sharp conflicts
the French crushed native Tunisian opposition. On May 12, 1881, the
reigning bey signed the Treaty of Kasser Said, known also as the Bardo
Treaty, which acknowledged Tunisia to be a French protectorate. The two
countries signed the supplemental Convention of Marsa in 1883.
The French Protectorate
French rule in Tunisia brought many important social and political
changes. After 1884 a French resident general governed the country,
although the bey was the nominal ruler. A sizable group of French
settlers colonized the northern coastal region, filled administrative
posts, and operated business enterprises. These settlers exerted a
strong Westernizing influence.
During the early 1900s the widespread diffusion in Tunisia of European
democratic ideals produced vigorous independence movements known
collectively as the Young Tunisians. For several decades French
authorities successfully suppressed the fledgling patriotic movements.
In 1920, however, various nationalist groups united and formed the
Destour (Constitutional) party, which advocated extensive democratic
reforms. The Destour movement was disbanded in 1925, but it was revived
during the economic depression of the 1930s. In 1934 the so-called Neo-Destour,
or New Constitutional, party was organized by the Tunisian patriot and
statesman Habib Bourguiba. In contrast to the more moderate Destour
party, which looked for support only in Tunisia, the Neo-Destour party
sought and received aid from extreme leftist or nationalist groups in
France, Morocco, and Algeria. The Destour and Neo-Destour parties were
forced by the government to dissolve in 1938.
The French authorities in Tunisia cooperated fully with the Vichy
government, which ruled in France after that country capitulated to
Germany on June 22, 1940, during World War II. Tunisia was important in
military operations. In November 1942, amphibious Allied forces landed
in Algeria and Morocco. Germany poured troops and tanks into the
northern regions of nearby Tunisia to resist the Allied advance. After
several months of fighting the Allied forces pinned the German forces
against the sea on the Cape Bon Peninsula, and on May 12, 1943, the
Germans capitulated. The surrender marked the final defeat of the Axis
powers in northern Africa. On May 15 the Allies transferred control of
Tunisia to the Free French. The French authorities immediately arrested
hundreds of alleged Fascist sympathizers and deposed the reigning bey as
a collaborator. These actions provoked deep resentment among the
Tunisian people and prepared the way for the postwar renewal of
nationalist agitation.
In 1945 France forced Bourguiba to seek refuge in Cairo. In the
following year France granted Tunisia status as a semiautonomous
associated state of the French Union. Further steps toward autonomy came
in August 1947, when the French resident general formed a ministry
composed chiefly of Tunisians; the French, however, retained the
preponderance of political power. In September 1949, Bourguiba returned
from exile and resumed his campaign for Tunisian independence. France,
responding to the ensuing upsurge of nationalist sentiment, in 1951
appointed more Tunisians to ministerial posts and in the civil service.
The following year the native Tunisian ministers attempted to air their
grievances against the French before the United Nations Security
Council, but they were prevented from doing so by a ruling that the
dispute involved a domestic rather than an international question and
hence did not fall under UN jurisdiction. Meanwhile, riots and political
demonstrations occurred continually, especially in the northern region,
rendering the French position in Tunisia increasingly untenable. The
disorders continued unabated through the first half of 1954, during
which time the French made, to no avail, repeated offers of limited
reforms.
Tunisian Resistance to French Rule
Anti-French disorders became increasingly violent late in July 1954. On
July 31 the French premier Pierre Mendès-France arrived in Tunisia on a
mission of conciliation. Mendès-France promised the protectorate full
internal autonomy under a government composed of Tunisians. This
statement proved acceptable to nationalist leaders, notably Bourguiba,
and rioting came to a halt. Lengthy negotiations followed, and on June
3, 1955, the Tunisian premier Tahar ben Ammar and the French premier
Edgar Faure signed a series of conventions and protocols that greatly
increased the extent of Tunisian self-rule. France retained control of
Tunisian foreign policy and defense, however. On September 17 the first
all-Tunisian government in 74 years was installed in Tunis. Many
nationalists actively opposed the new regime and pressed for an even
greater measure of independence from France. Further French concessions
were embodied in a historic protocol signed in Paris on March 20, 1956.
The agreement in effect abrogated the Bardo Treaty of 1881 and
recognized Tunisia as a completely sovereign, constitutional monarchy
under the bey of Tunis. The first national legislative elections in
Tunisian history, which took place on March 25, resulted in a decisive
victory for the Neo-Destour party. On April 8, Bourguiba was elected
president of the first Tunisian National Assembly; on April 11, he was
named premier. The assembly adopted a constitution transferring to the
Tunisian people the legislative powers hitherto exercised by the bey. On
November 12, 1956, Tunisia was admitted to the United Nations.
The political strength of the Neo-Destour party was demonstrated again
when on May 5, 1957, the party polled about 90 percent of the vote in
various municipal elections. Women voted in those elections for the
first time.
The Republic
On July 25, 1957, the National Assembly overthrew the last vestiges of
the monarchy by deposing the bey, proclaiming Tunisia a republic, and
electing Bourguiba president. On August 5, all beylical properties and
funds were confiscated by the republic and applied to a debt of
$3,840,000 owed by the bey to the state. Widespread dismissals of French
civil servants were carried out in the months following. As a result,
about a third of the French residents of Tunisia, fearing further
anti-French actions, fled the country, taking considerable amounts of
capital and diminishing sharply the available reserves of technological
skills.
Relations with France deteriorated in the late summer and autumn of 1957
as a result of clashes between French and Tunisian troops along the
Tunisian-Algerian border. The clashes occurred when French troops,
pursuing Algerian rebels, allegedly crossed the border into Tunisia.
In the early months of 1958 the crisis in foreign relations was
exacerbated still further. On February 8, French military planes flew
across the Algerian border and bombed the Tunisian village of
Sakiet-Sidi-Youssef (now Saqiyat Sidi Yusuf), killing 68 Tunisians and
wounding 100. French government representatives announced later the same
day that the raid had been conducted in retaliation for the
machine-gunning of French planes flying over the area on February 7.
Tunisia became a member state of the Arab League on October 1. On
October 15, however, Tunisia ended its diplomatic relations with Egypt
(then called the United Arab Republic). In November Tunisia resigned
from the league.
France and Tunisia, on April 15, 1959, signed an agreement continuing
French technical assistance. In 1960, Tunisia agreed to make part
payment for land confiscated from French nationals; France would pay the
balance. A new constitution was promulgated on June 1, 1959. On November
8, the first elections under the constitution were held. Unopposed,
Bourguiba was reelected president, and the Neo-Destour party won all
seats in the National Assembly.
Following French rejection of a Tunisian note demanding the immediate
evacuation of the naval base at Bizerte, Tunisian troops on July 19,
1961, began a siege of the base. In the next two days French forces
broke the blockade and surrounded the entire city, taking a toll of 1300
Tunisian lives. Both sides accepted a UN Security Council resolution of
July 22 calling for a ceasefire. The UN General Assembly, in addition,
on August 25 called on France to quit Bizerte altogether. Shortly
thereafter both sides withdrew to the positions occupied before the
fighting. After prolonged discussions between France and Tunisia,
beginning in 1962, France completely withdrew from Bizerte in October
1963.
Tunisia Tightens Its Ties with the Arab World
During 1963 and 1964 Tunisia moved toward closer economic and political
cooperation in northern Africa. The border dispute with Algeria was
settled, and schemes of technical cooperation were drawn up. Tunisian
relations with Morocco also improved. During 1965-66 Tunisia supported
the establishment of the Maghreb Permanent Consultative Committee to
work for greater North African regional cooperation.
Meanwhile, during 1963-64, Tunisia had moved to strengthen ties with the
Arab East, especially Egypt. In May 1964 the National Assembly enacted
the expropriation of all foreign-owned lands, which mainly affected
about 300,000 hectares (750,000 acres) belonging to French families.
France's reaction was to cancel all financial assistance to Tunisia,
leaving the country in serious economic crisis.
One implication of the nationalization of land was the beginnings of a
greater emphasis toward socialist collectivism. During the elections of
November 1964, renewed emphasis was placed on “Tunisian Socialism,” and
the Neo-Destour party changed its name to Parti Socialiste Destourien.
In that election President Bourguiba, the sole candidate, won by 96
percent of the votes; the Destour party won all 90 of the National
Assembly seats. In April 1965, Bourguiba's newly forged ties with the
Arab East were shattered when he unexpectedly proposed a negotiated
settlement between the Arab states and Israel on the basis of the 1947
UN resolution. This was rejected by both Israel and most Arab states led
by Egypt. Differences between Tunisia and other Arab states were further
exacerbated when relations with Egypt were severed, and Tunisia began to
boycott Arab League meetings.
In 1966 a rapprochement was achieved between Tunisia and Saudi Arabia,
but relations with Egypt further deteriorated. In the Yemeni war Tunisia
supported Saudi Arabia.
When the Arab-Israeli diplomatic confrontation intensified in April-May
1967, Tunisia gave full support to the Arab cause, and diplomatic
relations with Egypt were restored.
Bourguiba was reelected to a third term in November 1969. In December
the National Assembly approved a constitutional amendment providing for
a premier, to be appointed by the president, who would assume the
presidency in case of death or disability. This was expected to ensure a
continuation of the moderate domestic and foreign policies laid down by
Bourguiba. In March 1975, he was named president for life “in
recognition of services rendered.”
In the early 1970s Tunisia pursued peaceful economic development,
particularly of its petroleum resources. Relations with France and China
improved, but Bourguiba expressed his distrust of U.S. and Soviet
intentions in the Middle East. In 1982 Tunisia gave refuge to Palestine
Liberation Organization leader Yasir Arafat and several hundred of his
followers who had been forced out of Lebanon. Domestic rioting early in
1984 forced Bourguiba to rescind price increases on basic foodstuffs.
Relations with Libya were severed in 1985 after Libya expelled some
30,000 Tunisian workers. Later in the year an Israeli air raid
demolished the headquarters of the PLO near Tunis. In November 1987,
Prime Minister Zine el-Abidine ben Ali assumed the presidency. While
retaining the secret police, Ben Ali freed political prisoners,
legalized most opposition parties, and eased restrictions on the press.
Although several parties contested the April 1989 elections (Tunisia's
first free elections since 1956), his Democratic Constitutional Assembly
party won all 141 seats in parliament, and Ben Ali was elected to the
presidency unopposed. In the early 1990s he cracked down hard on Muslim
fundamentalists.
